Persian Campaign
Encyclopedia
The Persian Campaign or Invasion of Persia was a series of engagements at northern Persian Azerbaijan and western Persia
between the British Empire
and the Russian Empire
against the Ottoman Empire
, beginning in December 1914 and ending with the Armistice of Mudros
on October 30, 1918 as part of Middle Eastern theatre of World War I
. The Russian operations were halted by the Russian Revolution
on February 23, 1917 when the Russian Caucasus Army was replaced with Armenian units and an Allied force named Dunsterforce
.
and the Central Powers
and took sides based on the conditions. Western interest in Persia was based on its significant oil reserve and its strategic situation between Afghanistan
and the warring Ottoman, Russian, and British Empires. Persia was divided into northern and southern spheres of influence under the Anglo-Russian Treaty of 1907. The convention capped off several decades of the Great Game
between the Russians and British. The treaty also defined their respective spheres of influence
in Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet
and provided a counterweight to German influence.
Germany established their Intelligence Bureau for the East
on the eve of World War I, dedicated to promoting and sustaining subversive and nationalist agitations in British India and the Persian and Egypt
ian satellite states. The bureau was involved in intelligence and subversive missions to Persia and Afghanistan to dismantle the Anglo-Russian Entente
. The bureau's operations in Persia were led by Wilhelm Wassmuss. The Germans hoped to free Persia from British and Russian influence and to further create a wedge between Russia and the British, eventually leading to an invasion of British India by locally organized armies.
The Ottoman Empire's — or rather German — military strategic goal was to cut off Russian access to the hydrocarbon resources around the Caspian Sea
. Aligned with the Germans, the Ottoman Empire wanted to wane the influence of the Entente in this region, but for a very different reason. The Ottoman Minister of War, Enver Pasha, claimed that if the Russians could be beaten in the key cities of Persia, it could open the way to Azerbaijan, to Central Asia and to India. Enver Pasha visioned an extended cooperation between these newly establishing nationalistic states, if they were to be removed from western influence. This was his pan-Turanian project. Enver's project conflicted a major western project played out as struggles among several key imperial powers, known as Imperialism in Asia
. His political position was based on the assumption that none of the colonial powers possessed the resources to withstand the strains of world war and maintain their direct rule in their Asian colonies. Although nationalist movements throughout the colonial world led to political upheaval in nearly all colonies in Asia during World War I and the interwar period, the decolonisation on the scale of Enver's ambitions was never achieved. However, Enver Pasha continued with his ambition after the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
by the victorious Entente Powers until his death on August 4, 1922.
In 1914, before the war, the British government had contracted with the Anglo-Persian Oil Company
for the supply of oil for the navy. The Anglo-Persian Oil Company was in the proposed path of Enver's project which British had the exclusive rights to work petroleum deposits throughout the Persian Empire
except in the provinces of Azerbaijan, Gilan, Mazendaran, Astarabad and Khorasan.
, Tangistani Tribesmen
, Laristani Tribesmen, and Khamseh tribesmen
. The Persian central government also had the Persian Central Government Gendarmerie
under Swedish officers consisting of about 6,000 troops. Only 2,000 of the 6,000 were mounted. They were in 6 regiments of 9 battalions and armed with Mausers, 12 machine guns, and 4 mountain guns. The Persian forces were dispersed at Tehran, Kazvin (Ghazvin), and Hamadan with the objective of keeping the country's main roads, which covered an estimated distance of 930 miles, under Persian control.
In 1914, Enver Pasha ordered Lt. Col. Kâzım Bey
, commander of the 1st Expeditionary Force
(11 December) and Lt. Col. Halil Bey, commander of the 5th Expeditionary Force
(25 December): "Your duty is to move with your division towards Persia and proceed through Tabriz
to Dagestan
, where you will ignite a general rebellion and repulse the Russians from the shores of the Caspian Sea."
The German operations were achieved by Wilhelm Wassmuss
and Count Kaunitz
. Wilhelm Wassmuss, known as the German Lawrence
, was a German consular official in Persia who loved the desert, and wore the flowing robes of a desert tribesman. He persuaded his superiors in Constantinople that he could lead Persian tribes in a revolt against Britain.
In 1914, the British Indian Army
had several units located in the southern influence zone. Britain had extensive experience in dealing with tribal forces because of the Indian experience. In 1917, a British force headed by Major-General Lionel Dunsterville
was established. He arrived to take command in Baghdad on January 18, 1918. The British troops of Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and also two airplanes. He was ordered to "proceed from Mesopotamia through Persia to the port of Anzali
, then board ship to Baku
and onwards." In 1916 the British formed the South Persian Rifles to protect their interests in Persia.
Russia had since long established forces in the region. The Persian Cossack Brigade
and a small Russian contingent of the Russian Caucasus Army
under the Armenian General Tovmas Nazarbekian
existed in the region. The Cossack Brigade consisted of 8 squadrons, 1 small battalion of infantry and a horse battery of 6 Krup guns, which the total strength did not exceed 2.000 of all ranks. Besides this force, in 1912, Russia obtained the formal consent of the Persian government to the formation of a similar Cossack Brigade at Tabriz under Russian officers. The consent of the government was given as a condition for the withdrawal of Russian troops in Persian Azerbaijan which, at the onset of the Great War, Russia did not. The Russians also moved one detachment
of Armenian volunteer units
under the command of Andranik Toros Ozanian
to this region.
cities include Tabriz
, Urmia
, Ardabil
, Maragheh
, Marand
, Mahabad
and Khoy
.
The conflicts were distributed around major gateways in this mountainous geography. The Persian mountains have helped to shape both the political and the economic history. The mountains enclose several broad basins, or plateaus, on which major settlements were located. The principal areas were Tehran with 280,000 inhabitants; Tabriz with 200,000; Isfahan with 80,000; Meshed and Kerman with 60,000; Yazd
with 45,000. Persia in this period had many nomads as the local economy was based on herding
. The nomads of Persia comprised 260,000 Arabs; 720,000 Turks (Azeri origin); 675,000 Kurds and Leks; 20,700 Baluchis and Gipsies; 234,000 Lurs. The number of Europeans did not exceed 1,200. The religious breakdown of the population: about 8 millions Muslims, 10,000 Guebres, 40,000 Jews, 50,000 Armenians and 30,000 Nestorians.
or Kermān provinces from time to time. The government-controlled gendarmerie had gradually established themselves, although not wholly, and engaged a number of tribesmen. The authorities constructed posts along the routes which they held at the outbreak of war.
Russia maintained forces in northern Persia. The Russians, based on security reasons of the situation of Christians in Persia, occupied a number of cities. Tabriz was occupied in 1909; Urmia and Khoi in 1910. This measure enabled the Russians not only to control Persia, but also to secure the road from their rail-head at Djoulfa to the Van Province
of the Ottoman Empire through Khoi.
On June 28, 1914, World War I began. First the Ottoman Empire did not take any serious action. However, the security of the region began to decline even before the Russian-Ottoman conflicts. Disturbances began along the border. A notable attack was made on Urmia, ostensibly by Kurdish Tribesmen. About the same time the Russians closed the Ottoman consulates in Urmia, Tabriz and Khoi, and expelled the Kurds and other Sunni Muslims from the villages near Urmia. Arms were given at the same time to some of the Christians. Russian authorities distributed 24,000 rifles to the some Kurdish Tribesmen that sided with them in Persia and the Van Province. Russian-Ottoman conflicts began with the Bergmann Offensive
on November 2, 1914.
On December 14, 1914, Van Jandarma Division occupied the city of Qotur. Later, proceeded towards Hoy. It was supposed to keep this passage open to Kâzım Bey
(5th Expeditionary Force
) and Halil Bey units (1st Expeditionary Force
) who were to move towards Tabriz from the bridgehead established at Qotur. However, the Battle of Sarıkamısh depleted the Ottoman forces and these forces to be deploy to Persia needed elsewhere. On January 10 the 5th Expeditionary Force, which was on the way to Persia, was rerouted north to the Third Army
and soon it was followed by the 1st Expeditionary Force.
and Hamadan
.
On January 4, 1915, a volunteer detachment led by Omer Naci Bey, who was sent to Persia on a special mission by Talat Pasha, captured the city of Urmia. One week later, the "Mosul Group" commanded by Omer Fevzi Bey entered Tabriz, without facing much resistance. Apparently taking the Russian higher command completely by surprise. Though referred as Khalil Bey by Aram, Omer Fevzi with his [superior] forces captured the city of Urmia in a few hours and marched on Salmast. At the end of 1914, Omer Fevzi who was identified as Khalil took nearly a thousand Russians prisoners. On January 26–28, 1915, in Sufian
area, General Chernozubov had a brief fighting. Russia sent a strong force which succeeded in recapturing the city. On January 30, Chernozubov entered Tabriz.
On February 3, 1915, General Nazarbekov launched a counter-offensive. This time, the Van Gendarmerie Division succeeded in holding its lines.
In early March, Nazarbekov attacked with a stronger force. He had seven battalions in total. On 7 March, Van Gendarmerie Division evacuated Dilman and began to withdraw, reaching Qotur three days later and entrenching there.
In April 1915, the 1st Expeditionary Force under the command of Halil Bey moved towards northern Persia. The objective was the city of Dilman, and to clean this region from Nazarbekov's forces, which would provide a significant tactical advantage in the Caucasian Campaign. Diliman was place one of the fiercest battles between the Armenians and the Turks. The first battalion of the Armenian volunteers, under the command of the Andranik repulsed the attacks of Khalil Bey, until the Russian Chernozubov arrived The newly-arrived Russian forces from the Caucasus, they were able to put to flight Khalil Bey. A poorly executed night raid on April 14 cost Halil Bey around 2,000 casualties. He lost thirty-six hundred soldiers in the course of those three days. General Nazarbekov managed to push Halil Pasha regulars towards Başkale
after the Battle of Diliman (April 15, 1915), securing the situation. Halil Bey received the following cable from Enver Pasha and leave this theater of war: "Van is silenced. Roads to Bitlis and Iraq are under danger. In order to avoid even greater threats, withdraw as soon as possible and join the Third Army which would take control of these gateways."
On May 8, 1915, one of the twelve Armenian messengers from the Siege of Van
had got through to Persia An Armenian volunteer unit with Andranik, along with 1200 man, and commander Chernoroyal's division dispatched toward the Bashkaleh. On May 7, they captured Bashkaleh. This group from Persia reach the City of Van on May 18. They had expected to find Van still in a state of siege and were amazed at finding it in the hands of the Armenians. When word got to Yudenich, he sent a brigade
of Trans-Baikal Cossacks under General Trukhin. With Van secure, fighting shifted farther west for the rest of the summer.
During July 1915, Russian forces at the Caucasus Campaign
had a general retreat which one Russian column retreated up to Persian frontier. This retreat was the consequence of events at June 1915. Yudenich planned an attack to limit the Ottomans at Moush and Manzikert
. He planned to outflank from Beyazit and Persian Azerbaijan towards Van. However, the Russian advance toward the Caucuses campaign did not last long. The Russian forces suffered reverses. The command of Khalil Bey Eleven divisions of regular troops attacked the very center of the Russian Caucasian advance. In a few days they with Battle of Malazgirt July 16, and later Battle of Kara Killisse
the Russian army retreated.
In August 1915, as the British occupied Bushire, the gendarmes under Akhgar retreated to Burazjan.
In November 1915, Major Pesyan
as commander of Gendarmerie in Hamedan launched an attack on the pro-Russian Persian Cossack Brigade at the Battle of Musalla. His gendarmes managed to disarm the Persian Cossacks and he managed to win some of the cossacks to join his forces in a patriotic speech he made to them after their defeat. After this victory, Russians advanced on the Persian Gendermerie, in Robat-i-Karim forces under Mohammad Hossein Jahanbani and in Hamedan-Kermanshah road forces under Major Pesyan
and Azizollah Zarghami could not defend Hamedan against an advancing Russian Caucasus Army which was superior in numbers and weapons. In Soltanabad, gendarmerie force under Masoud Kayhan were also defeated by the Russians. The gendarmes then retreated to Kermanshah. On November 10, 1915, pro-Central powers Persian Gendarmerie under Ali Quli Khan Pasyan defeat pro-British Khamseh tribal forces of Ibrahim Khan Qavam-ul-Mulk and capture Shiraz. All British residents of Shiraz are arrested. Gendarms also capture Yazd and Kerman.
In the middle of November 1915, General Yudenitch who was managing the Caucasian Campaign (the nearest to the spot), dispatched two columns into the Persian Azerbaijan; one, under General Nikolai Baratov
, with the order to push southwestward through Hamadan to Kermanshah, on the way to Bagdad. The second column advanced through Kum and Kashan to Ispahan. A detachment of the Russian Caucasus Army marched on Tehran. On November 14, The Austro-Hungarian and German Ministers left the capital, but Ahmad Shah Qajar
did not agree to leave his people behind, and the Prince of Reuss undertook to hold strategical points with a force of 6,000 of the Persian gendarmerie, about 3,000 Turkish irregulars, and the disaffected Persian tribesmen, about 15,000 in all. By the end of the month, Tehran was taken by the Russians Caucuses Army and Armenian volunteers.
In December 1915, the Shah was induced to appoint a new pro-Ally cabinet with Prince Firman Firma at its head. On December 15, 1915, Hamadan was captured by the Nikolai Baratov. Baratov's job was not difficult because, there was no significant resistance. During the last days of 1915, Sir Percy Sykes
assigned a mission with a temporary rank of Brigadier-General to establish a force South Persia Rifles
using the local Tribesmen which would render their service for a price. His mission was to counter the strong German influence in most of South Persia.
On February 26, 1916, the Russians advanced and defeated the gendarmes who then retreated to Qasr-i-Shirin and managed to hold the region until May 1916, when Qasr-i-Shirin was captured by the Russians. This time, many gendarmes went to live in exile in Istanbul, Mosul and Baghdad. In the spring of 1916, Ibrahim Khan Qavam-ul-Mulk and his Khamseh tribesmen defeated the gendarmes under Ali Quli Khan Pesyan and Ghulam Riza Khan Pesyan who shot and killed each other. Other gendarmes, the German Consul Roever and the Swedish Captain Angman were arrested and tortured.
On May 7, 1916, the next objective of Baratov was Khanaqin. They had to retreat on a strong resistance by the unit led by Şevket Bey. This gave the Turks valuable time to strengthen their defenses. The 6th Division arrived as a reinforcement in northern Persia. Enver Pasha moved this freed unit to Persia. Enver Pasha thought that it was time to strike back.
In late May, facing Baratov was assigned to the XIII Corps
commanded by colonel Ali İhsan Bey
, who began his advance. Meanwhile, on the Russian side, Baratov was hoping to capture Khanaqin and move down to Baghdad, which could have been taken by the Russians as the Turks and the British were busy with fighting each other. On June 3, he forced Khanaqin once again, but this time the balance had changed. The Ottoman XIII Corps successful repulsed Baratov's forces, and did not leave it there; soon the counter-offensive that was planned launched. Ali İhsan Bey captured Kermanshah on 2 July and took Hamadan on 10 August. Having lost half of his men, Baratov was forced to retreat north. Baratov stopped at the Sultan Bulak range. On August 1916, the gendarmes return to Kermanshah.
On June 12, 1916, the British advance in southern Persia which was undertaken by Percy Sykes column under reached the Kerman. From this point, he supported the Russians operations against the Ottoman Empire until June 1917, when he was withdrawn with the new Persian government.
In 1916, General Chernozubov sent a military exhibition in Hakkyari. The squads within the expedition were led by the Patriarch's brother David; Ismail, Malik of the Upper Tyari; and Andreus, the Jilu Malik.
In December 1916, Baratov began to move on Qoms and Hamadan for clearing Persian forces and Ottoman troops. Both cities fell in the same month.
Count Kaunitz disappeared without a trace, either killing himself or being a victim of assassination by disenchanted coup members. The premature coup was crushed in Tehran as Ahmad Shah Qajar took refuge in the Russian legation, and a sizable Russian force arrived to Tehran under Baratov after they landed in Bandar-e Pahlavi in November of that year. The pro-German coup members of the Majles
fled to Kirmanshah and Qom
without fighting.
The chaos caused by the Russian Revolution
put a stop to all Russian military operations. In January 1917, the Grand Duke Dimitri Pavlovich Romanov was sent to join Baratov. Baratov established a Cavalry Corps headquarters at Kasvin in northern Persia. Following months Baratov's forces began to suffer desertions. Baratov had barely an effective regiment in his hand at November 1917 as many of his cossacks to their Stanisa villages.
In April 1917, Baratov meet with a Colonel Rowlandson, who was the liaison to link Caucasian Cavalry Corps with the British Dunsterforce. The new government removed the Grand Duke from his command and reassigned General Yudenich to a meaningless position in Central Asia. He then retired from the army. The Russian army slowly disintegrated until there was no effective military force during the rest of 1917.
On December 16, The Armistice of Erzincan
(Erzincan Cease-fire Agreement) was signed officially brought an end to the hostilities between Ottoman Empire and Russians Special Transcaucasian Committee
. Ottomans and Germans began to dispute possession of the provinces along the border between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Enver Pasha believed that Germany had disregarded Turkish interests when the terms of the armistice were negotiated with Russia and moved on to disregard German interests, sending armed forces to the region. A newly established Ninth Army
, consisting of the I Caucasian Corps
and IV Corps
was sent to Persia, under the command of Yakub Shevki
Pasha. The task of this army was to "Stop the British advance in Persia, to prevent them from helping the Bolsheviks, to cover the area between the Lake of Urmia and the Caspian Sea, and, if necessary, to join the Sixth Army
for the operation to capture Baghdad."
With the Russian armies began to disintegrate. Van, which was located at the Caucasus Campaign
war zone, was completely cut off from the Allies. At this time, the British Army did not move very far beyond Baghdad in the Mesopotamian campaign
. Armenians of the Van attempted to hold their own.
at Baghdad. It was named the Dunsterforce
. The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach Caucasus via Persia. It was planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Ally elements that still existed in the Caucuses.
In February 1918, the Caucasian Cavalry Corps only consisted of Baratov, General Lastochkin, Colonel Bicherakov, Colonel Baron Meden and about 1000 loyal Kuban and Terek cossacks. Baratov and his men assisted, even though new Russian government had a peace agreement, the British in Persia until the end of World War I.
On 3 March 1918, The Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
with the Russian SFSR. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border between Russia and Ottoman Empire to be pulled back to prewar levels and the cities Batum, Kars
, and Ardahan
to be transferred to Ottoman Empire.
In April 1918, Armenians of Van were eventually evacuate and withdraw from the province of Van and retreated eastward toward the Persian Azerbaijan. Early in 1918, Ottoman Third Army
moved to offense. Retreating Armenians from Van, joined by the Assyrians in defense, made a stand near Dilman but continue to retreat southward around Lake Urmiah. Third Army did not follow this unit.
On 8 June 1918, the IV Corps
entered Tabriz. Yakub Shevki faced an Armenian volunteer force of 4,000 men coming from Van. They aimed to break through the Şahtahtı-Tabriz line and join with Ozanian's forces. On 15 June, the 12th Division of the IV Corps defeated this Armenian unit at a battle to the north of Dilman. The city of Dilman was captured on 18 June. On 24 June, Ozanian managed to defeat opposing units and to lay siege on the city of Hoy. The 12th Division came to rescue and repulsed Ozanian's forces. At the same time, the 5th Division of the IV Corps had to retreat against a 1,500-strong Armenian force. In the south, Urmia fall to the IV Corps on 31 July. By the end of July, there was an increasing British presence in the Persia and the Ninth Army's advance came to a halt.
During July 1918, the British Army occupied the greater portion of Mesopotamia with the Mesopotamian Campaign, as well as a large part of Persian Azerbaijan. Preparations were made for the establishment of a large camp for Armenians refugees near Bakubah, Iraq. Towards the end of September it was decided to raise four battalions from the Armenians refugee at Bakubah on the lines of an Indian Infantry battalion. 2nd Battalion was established by Van Armenians. 3rd Battalion was established by Armenians from other regions. The G.O.C. North Persian Force decided to locate 2nd Battalion to Senna
. 3rd Battalion moved to Bijar
.
By September 1918, the Ottomans consolidated their control over northern Persia, between Tabriz and the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. But they lost the rest of the region to British. They would hold this territory until the armistice.
On 30 October 1918, the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros
and the military operations ended.
soon followed. Enver Pasha's political vision which stated as "If Russians beaten in the key cities of Persia, they could be forced to out from the region", failed as Russian and Bakhtiari troops landed in 1920 and forced majles to temporarily cease. The immediate outcome of the Campaign was the Anglo-Persian Agreement
, which gave the drilling rights of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company
. The "agreement" was issued by British Foreign Secretary Earl Curzon
to the Persian government in August 1919. It stated a guarantee of British access to Iranian oil fields. In 1919, northern Persia was occupied by the British General William Edmund Ironside to enforce the Armistice of Mudros
conditions and help General Dunsterville and Colonel Bicherakhov to contain Bolshevik
influence (of Mirza Kuchak Khan
) in the north. Britain attempted to establish a protectorate
in Iran. Britain also took tighter military control over the increasingly lucrative oil fields.
After the Russian left the Persia in 1917 (for a short period—later to come back) following the Russian revolution, Mar Shimmun wholly understood the difficult situation the Assyrians. In 1918, he was convincing Agha Putrus not to fight against Persians but to make peace with them in his messages. We can see that Assyrians did not put down their weapons as the Patriarch advised but on the contrary chose to attack. After the defeat Major Pesyan
went to live in exile in Berlin. During his time in Berlin, he was trained as a pilot in the German Airforce and was rewarded with the Eisernes Kreuz Medal for shooting down more than 25 enemy aircraft during World War I.
In late 1920, the Soviet Socialist Republic in Rasht was preparing to march on Tehran with "a guerrilla force of 1500 Jangalis, Armenians, and interestingly this time Kurds, and Azerbaijanis were on their side", reinforced by the Soviet Red Army. Britain attempted to establish a protectorate
in Iran following 1919, which this goal aided by the Soviet Union's withdrawal in 1921. In that year, a military coup established Reza Khan, a Persian officer of the Persian Cossack Brigade, as dictator and then hereditary Shah
of the new Pahlavi dynasty (1925). Reza Shah curtailed the power of the majles. He effectively turned it into a rubber stamp organization. While Reza Khan and his Cossack brigade were securing Tehran, the Persian envoy was in Moscow negotiating a treaty with the Bolsheviks for the removal of Soviet troops from Persia. The coup d'état of 1921 and the emergence of Reza Khan were assisted by the British government that wished to halt the Bolshevik's penetration of Iran, particularly because of the threat it posed to the British colonial possession of India. It is thought that British provided "ammunition, supplies and pay" for Reza's troops.
Qajar dynasty
The Qajar dynasty was an Iranian royal family of Turkic descent who ruled Persia from 1785 to 1925....
between the British Empire
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
and the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
against the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, beginning in December 1914 and ending with the Armistice of Mudros
Armistice of Mudros
The Armistice of Moudros , concluded on 30 October 1918, ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I...
on October 30, 1918 as part of Middle Eastern theatre of World War I
Middle Eastern theatre of World War I
The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I was the scene of action between 29 October 1914, and 30 October 1918. The combatants were the Ottoman Empire, with some assistance from the other Central Powers, and primarily the British and the Russians among the Allies of World War I...
. The Russian operations were halted by the Russian Revolution
Russian Revolution of 1917
The Russian Revolution is the collective term for a series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which destroyed the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the Soviet Union. The Tsar was deposed and replaced by a provisional government in the first revolution of February 1917...
on February 23, 1917 when the Russian Caucasus Army was replaced with Armenian units and an Allied force named Dunsterforce
Dunsterforce
Established in 1917, Dunsterforce was an Allied military mission of under 1,000 Australian, New Zealand, British, and Canadian troops , accompanied by armoured cars, deployed from Hamadan some 350 km across Qajar Persia. It was named after its commander General Lionel Dunsterville...
.
Background
Persia was, on paper, neutral in World War I. In reality, Persian forces were affected by the rivalry between the Allied PowersAllies of World War I
The Entente Powers were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Triple Entente were the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire; Italy entered the war on their side in 1915...
and the Central Powers
Central Powers
The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...
and took sides based on the conditions. Western interest in Persia was based on its significant oil reserve and its strategic situation between Afghanistan
Emirate of Afghanistan
The Emirate of Afghanistan began with the end of the Durrani Empire and the reign of Dost Mohammad Khan in 1823 and ended when Amir Amanullah Khan became Shah in 1926. This period was characterized by the expansion of European colonial interests in Central Asia...
and the warring Ottoman, Russian, and British Empires. Persia was divided into northern and southern spheres of influence under the Anglo-Russian Treaty of 1907. The convention capped off several decades of the Great Game
The Great Game
The Great Game or Tournament of Shadows in Russia, were terms for the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire for supremacy in Central Asia. The classic Great Game period is generally regarded as running approximately from the Russo-Persian Treaty of 1813...
between the Russians and British. The treaty also defined their respective spheres of influence
Sphere of influence
In the field of international relations, a sphere of influence is a spatial region or conceptual division over which a state or organization has significant cultural, economic, military or political influence....
in Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
and provided a counterweight to German influence.
Germany established their Intelligence Bureau for the East
Intelligence Bureau for the East
The Intelligence Bureau for the East was a German intelligence organisation established on the eve of World War I dedicated to promoting and sustaining subversive and nationalist agitations in the British Indian Empire and the Persian and Egyptian satellite states...
on the eve of World War I, dedicated to promoting and sustaining subversive and nationalist agitations in British India and the Persian and Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
ian satellite states. The bureau was involved in intelligence and subversive missions to Persia and Afghanistan to dismantle the Anglo-Russian Entente
Anglo-Russian Entente
Signed on August 31, 1907, in St. Petersburg, Russia, the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 brought shaky British-Russian relations to the forefront by solidifying boundaries that identified respective control in Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet...
. The bureau's operations in Persia were led by Wilhelm Wassmuss. The Germans hoped to free Persia from British and Russian influence and to further create a wedge between Russia and the British, eventually leading to an invasion of British India by locally organized armies.
The Ottoman Empire's — or rather German — military strategic goal was to cut off Russian access to the hydrocarbon resources around the Caspian Sea
Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area, variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged sea. The sea has a surface area of and a volume of...
. Aligned with the Germans, the Ottoman Empire wanted to wane the influence of the Entente in this region, but for a very different reason. The Ottoman Minister of War, Enver Pasha, claimed that if the Russians could be beaten in the key cities of Persia, it could open the way to Azerbaijan, to Central Asia and to India. Enver Pasha visioned an extended cooperation between these newly establishing nationalistic states, if they were to be removed from western influence. This was his pan-Turanian project. Enver's project conflicted a major western project played out as struggles among several key imperial powers, known as Imperialism in Asia
Imperialism in Asia
Imperialism in Asia traces its roots back to the late 15th century with a series of voyages that sought a sea passage to India in the hope of establishing direct trade between Europe and Asia in spices. Before 1500 European economies were largely self-sufficient, only supplemented by minor trade...
. His political position was based on the assumption that none of the colonial powers possessed the resources to withstand the strains of world war and maintain their direct rule in their Asian colonies. Although nationalist movements throughout the colonial world led to political upheaval in nearly all colonies in Asia during World War I and the interwar period, the decolonisation on the scale of Enver's ambitions was never achieved. However, Enver Pasha continued with his ambition after the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
The Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was a political event that occurred after World War I. The huge conglomeration of territories and peoples formerly ruled by the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new nations.The partitioning was planned from the early days of the war,...
by the victorious Entente Powers until his death on August 4, 1922.
In 1914, before the war, the British government had contracted with the Anglo-Persian Oil Company
Anglo-Persian Oil Company
The Anglo-Persian Oil Company was founded in 1908 following the discovery of a large oil field in Masjed Soleiman, Iran. It was the first company to extract petroleum from the Middle East...
for the supply of oil for the navy. The Anglo-Persian Oil Company was in the proposed path of Enver's project which British had the exclusive rights to work petroleum deposits throughout the Persian Empire
Qajar dynasty
The Qajar dynasty was an Iranian royal family of Turkic descent who ruled Persia from 1785 to 1925....
except in the provinces of Azerbaijan, Gilan, Mazendaran, Astarabad and Khorasan.
Forces
The Persian forces were established around certain districts, instead of one single force. Each district (like state forces) furnished battalions and each of the provinces had several battalions. Each district depending on the tribal grouping furnished one or sometimes two battalions usually under their own chiefs. The strength of battalions was from 600 to 800. They had batteries from 4 to 8 guns. The irregular troops amounted to about 50,000 in each district with ranks composed of tribal horsemen and an uncertain number of footmen all poorly armed. It was not uncommon of the chiefs, who controlled the battalions, to change sides. Some of these forces were Qashqai TribesmenQashqai
Qashqai are the largest group of nomadic pastoralists people of Azeri descent who mainly live in the provinces of Fars, Khuzestan and southern Isfahan on the territory of modern Iran, especially around the city of Shiraz in Fars. They speak the Qashqai language which is a member of the Turkic...
, Tangistani Tribesmen
Tangestan County
Tangestan County is a county in Bushehr Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Ahram. At the 2006 census, the county's population was 63,276, in 14,620 families. The county is subdivided into two districts: the Central District and Delvar District...
, Laristani Tribesmen, and Khamseh tribesmen
Khamseh
The Khamseh are an Iranian Arabs and tribal confederation in the province of Fars in southwestern Iran....
. The Persian central government also had the Persian Central Government Gendarmerie
Persian Central Government Gendarmerie
The Swedish Gendarmerie, also called the Government Gendarmerie , was the first modern highway patrol and rural police force in Persia. A paramilitary force, it also played a significant part in politics from its establishment in 1910 until the advent of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1921. It continued...
under Swedish officers consisting of about 6,000 troops. Only 2,000 of the 6,000 were mounted. They were in 6 regiments of 9 battalions and armed with Mausers, 12 machine guns, and 4 mountain guns. The Persian forces were dispersed at Tehran, Kazvin (Ghazvin), and Hamadan with the objective of keeping the country's main roads, which covered an estimated distance of 930 miles, under Persian control.
In 1914, Enver Pasha ordered Lt. Col. Kâzım Bey
Kazim Karabekir
Musa Kâzım Karabekir was a Turkish general and politician. He was commander of the Eastern Army in the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I and served as Speaker of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey before his death.-Early years:Karabekir was born in 1882 as the son of an Ottoman General,...
, commander of the 1st Expeditionary Force
1st Expeditionary Force (Ottoman Empire)
1st Expeditionary Force or First Expeditionary Force of the Ottoman Empire was one of the expeditionary forces of the Ottoman Army.-Order of Battle:...
(11 December) and Lt. Col. Halil Bey, commander of the 5th Expeditionary Force
5th Expeditionary Force (Ottoman Empire)
5th Expeditionary Force or Fifth Expeditionary Force of the Ottoman Empire was one of the expeditionary forces of the Ottoman Army.- Order of Battle :...
(25 December): "Your duty is to move with your division towards Persia and proceed through Tabriz
Tabriz
Tabriz is the fourth largest city and one of the historical capitals of Iran and the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. Situated at an altitude of 1,350 meters at the junction of the Quri River and Aji River, it was the second largest city in Iran until the late 1960s, one of its former...
to Dagestan
Dagestan
The Republic of Dagestan is a federal subject of Russia, located in the North Caucasus region. Its capital and the largest city is Makhachkala, located at the center of Dagestan on the Caspian Sea...
, where you will ignite a general rebellion and repulse the Russians from the shores of the Caspian Sea."
The German operations were achieved by Wilhelm Wassmuss
Wilhelm Wassmuss
Wilhelm Wassmuss was a German diplomat, also known as the "Wassmuss of Persia". He attempted to foment trouble for the British in the Persian Gulf in the First World War.- Birth and schooling :...
and Count Kaunitz
Georg von Kaunitz
Count Georg von Kaunitz was a military attaché to the Embassy of the German Empire in Tehran during World War I.His duties included rallying pro-German units for the war in the Middle East....
. Wilhelm Wassmuss, known as the German Lawrence
T. E. Lawrence
Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Edward Lawrence, CB, DSO , known professionally as T. E. Lawrence, was a British Army officer renowned especially for his liaison role during the Arab Revolt against Ottoman Turkish rule of 1916–18...
, was a German consular official in Persia who loved the desert, and wore the flowing robes of a desert tribesman. He persuaded his superiors in Constantinople that he could lead Persian tribes in a revolt against Britain.
In 1914, the British Indian Army
British Indian Army
The British Indian Army, officially simply the Indian Army, was the principal army of the British Raj in India before the partition of India in 1947...
had several units located in the southern influence zone. Britain had extensive experience in dealing with tribal forces because of the Indian experience. In 1917, a British force headed by Major-General Lionel Dunsterville
Lionel Dunsterville
General Lionel Charles Dunsterville CB, CSI was a British general, who led the so-called Dunsterforce across present-day Iraq and Iran towards Caucasus and oil-rich Baku.-Biography:...
was established. He arrived to take command in Baghdad on January 18, 1918. The British troops of Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and also two airplanes. He was ordered to "proceed from Mesopotamia through Persia to the port of Anzali
Bandar-e Anzali
Bandar-e Anzali , also Romanized as Bandar-e Pahlavī, Bandar Pahlavi, and Bandar Pahlevi, or simply as Pahlavī, Pahlevī, and Pehlevi; earlier, Enceli and Enzeli) is a city in and the capital of Bandar-e Anzali County, Gilan Province, Iran...
, then board ship to Baku
Baku
Baku , sometimes spelled as Baki or Bakou, is the capital and largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and of the Caucasus region. It is located on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula, which projects into the Caspian Sea. The city consists of two principal...
and onwards." In 1916 the British formed the South Persian Rifles to protect their interests in Persia.
Russia had since long established forces in the region. The Persian Cossack Brigade
Persian Cossack Brigade
The Persian Cossack Brigade was an elite cavalry unit formed in 1879 in Iran. During much of their history they were the only functional, effective military unit of the Qajar Dynasty...
and a small Russian contingent of the Russian Caucasus Army
Russian Caucasus Army
The Russian Caucasus Army of World War I was the Russian field army that fought in the Caucasus Campaign and Persian Campaign of World War I.-Period of existence:The Caucasus Army was formed in July 1914 from units of the Caucasus Military District...
under the Armenian General Tovmas Nazarbekian
Tovmas Nazarbekian
Tovmas Nazarbekian, commonly known as General Nazarbekov , was an Armenian general in the Russian Caucasus Army that appointed as the governor of the Administration for Western Armenia and later promoted to commander-in-chief of Democratic Republic of Armenia.He was born to a wealthy Russianized...
existed in the region. The Cossack Brigade consisted of 8 squadrons, 1 small battalion of infantry and a horse battery of 6 Krup guns, which the total strength did not exceed 2.000 of all ranks. Besides this force, in 1912, Russia obtained the formal consent of the Persian government to the formation of a similar Cossack Brigade at Tabriz under Russian officers. The consent of the government was given as a condition for the withdrawal of Russian troops in Persian Azerbaijan which, at the onset of the Great War, Russia did not. The Russians also moved one detachment
Detachment (military)
A detachment is a military unit. It can either be detached from a larger unit for a specific function or be a permanent unit smaller than a battalion. The term is often used to refer to a unit that is assigned to a different base from the parent unit...
of Armenian volunteer units
Armenian volunteer units
Armenian volunteer units, also known the Armenian volunteer corps were Armenian battalions in Russian and British armies during the World War I. Majority of these units support the military activities at the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. The origin of these units were varied. Some units...
under the command of Andranik Toros Ozanian
Andranik Toros Ozanian
Andranik Ozanian , Andranik Toros Ozanian , General Andranik , also as Antranik or Antranig was an Armenian general, political and public activist and freedom fighter, greatly admired as a national hero.-Early Age:Antranik Toros Ozanian was born in the church...
to this region.
Battle zone
The engagements were in the northern Persian Azerbaijan, compromising the provinces of East Azarbaijan, West Azarbaijan and ArdabilArdabil
Ardabil is a historical city in north-western Iran. The name Ardabil probably comes from the Zoroastrian name of "Artavil" which means a holy place. Ardabil is the center of Ardabil Province. At the 2006 census, its population was 412,669, in 102,818 families...
cities include Tabriz
Tabriz
Tabriz is the fourth largest city and one of the historical capitals of Iran and the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. Situated at an altitude of 1,350 meters at the junction of the Quri River and Aji River, it was the second largest city in Iran until the late 1960s, one of its former...
, Urmia
Urmia
- Demographics :According to official census of 2006, the population of Urmia is about 871,204.- Language :The population of Urmia is mainly Azerbaijani people, with Kurdish, Assyrian Christian, and Armenian minorities...
, Ardabil
Ardabil
Ardabil is a historical city in north-western Iran. The name Ardabil probably comes from the Zoroastrian name of "Artavil" which means a holy place. Ardabil is the center of Ardabil Province. At the 2006 census, its population was 412,669, in 102,818 families...
, Maragheh
Maragheh
Maragheh also Romanized as Marāgheh and Marāghen) is a city in and the capital of Maragheh County, East Azerbaijan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 146,405, in 38,891 families....
, Marand
Marand
Marand is a city in and the capital of Marand County, East Azerbaijan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 114,165, in 29,755 families....
, Mahabad
Mahabad
-Culture:Muhammad Qazi translated more than 70 important literary works into Persian. Other writers and poets have hailed from Mahabad in the 19th and 20th century including Wafaei , Hejar , Hêmin , Abdorrahamn Zabihi and Giw Mukriyani...
and Khoy
Khoy
Khoy is a city in and the capital of Khoy County, West Azerbaijan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 178,708, in 45,090 families....
.
The conflicts were distributed around major gateways in this mountainous geography. The Persian mountains have helped to shape both the political and the economic history. The mountains enclose several broad basins, or plateaus, on which major settlements were located. The principal areas were Tehran with 280,000 inhabitants; Tabriz with 200,000; Isfahan with 80,000; Meshed and Kerman with 60,000; Yazd
Yazd
Yazd is the capital of Yazd Province in Iran, and a centre of Zoroastrian culture. The city is located some 175 miles southeast of Isfahan. At the 2006 census, the population was 423,006, in 114,716 families....
with 45,000. Persia in this period had many nomads as the local economy was based on herding
Herding
Herding is the act of bringing individual animals together into a group , maintaining the group and moving the group from place to place—or any combination of those. While the layperson uses the term "herding", most individuals involved in the process term it mustering, "working stock" or...
. The nomads of Persia comprised 260,000 Arabs; 720,000 Turks (Azeri origin); 675,000 Kurds and Leks; 20,700 Baluchis and Gipsies; 234,000 Lurs. The number of Europeans did not exceed 1,200. The religious breakdown of the population: about 8 millions Muslims, 10,000 Guebres, 40,000 Jews, 50,000 Armenians and 30,000 Nestorians.
Prelude
The central Persian government had difficulties in establishing order before the war. In a single year; the Qashqai Tribesmen, the most powerful in southern Persia, defied the governor-general and raided in Fars as did the Boyer Ahmad-i's Tribesmen; the Khamseh Tribesmen raided the caravan routes in the Kerman province; and other tribes raided in the Fars, YazdYazd Province
Yazd Province is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. It is in the centre of the country, and its administrative center is the city of Yazd.The province has an area of 131,575 km², and according to the most recent divisions of the country, is divided into eleven counties: Maybod, Mehreez, Taft,...
or Kermān provinces from time to time. The government-controlled gendarmerie had gradually established themselves, although not wholly, and engaged a number of tribesmen. The authorities constructed posts along the routes which they held at the outbreak of war.
Russia maintained forces in northern Persia. The Russians, based on security reasons of the situation of Christians in Persia, occupied a number of cities. Tabriz was occupied in 1909; Urmia and Khoi in 1910. This measure enabled the Russians not only to control Persia, but also to secure the road from their rail-head at Djoulfa to the Van Province
Van Province, Ottoman Empire
The Vilayet of Van was one of the Six vilayets of the Ottoman Empire. At the beginning of the 20th century it reportedly had a population of about 400,000 and an area of .- History :...
of the Ottoman Empire through Khoi.
On June 28, 1914, World War I began. First the Ottoman Empire did not take any serious action. However, the security of the region began to decline even before the Russian-Ottoman conflicts. Disturbances began along the border. A notable attack was made on Urmia, ostensibly by Kurdish Tribesmen. About the same time the Russians closed the Ottoman consulates in Urmia, Tabriz and Khoi, and expelled the Kurds and other Sunni Muslims from the villages near Urmia. Arms were given at the same time to some of the Christians. Russian authorities distributed 24,000 rifles to the some Kurdish Tribesmen that sided with them in Persia and the Van Province. Russian-Ottoman conflicts began with the Bergmann Offensive
Bergmann Offensive
The Bergmann Offensive was the first engagement of the Caucasus Campaign. General Georgy Berhmann, who was the commander of the I Caucasian Army Corps took the initiative against the Ottoman Empire....
on November 2, 1914.
1914
In December 1914, General Myshlaevsky ordered a withdrawal from Persia at the height of the Battle of Sarikamish. Only one brigade of Russian troops under the command of the Armenian General Nazarbekoff and one battalion of Armenian volunteers scattered throughout Salmast and Urmia. Contact was limited to skirmishes on the border of northern Persia. The presence of Russian cavalry units kept them quiet. Enver established [one division] troops from conscripted at Constantinople [December 25]. This unit was given under the command of Khalil Bey. While Halil Bey's troops were preparing for the operation, a small group had already crossed the Persian frontier. After repulsing a Russian offensive toward Van, Van Gendarmerie Division [commanded by Major Ferid], a lightly equipped paramilitary formation, had chased the enemy into Persia.On December 14, 1914, Van Jandarma Division occupied the city of Qotur. Later, proceeded towards Hoy. It was supposed to keep this passage open to Kâzım Bey
Kazim Karabekir
Musa Kâzım Karabekir was a Turkish general and politician. He was commander of the Eastern Army in the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I and served as Speaker of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey before his death.-Early years:Karabekir was born in 1882 as the son of an Ottoman General,...
(5th Expeditionary Force
5th Expeditionary Force (Ottoman Empire)
5th Expeditionary Force or Fifth Expeditionary Force of the Ottoman Empire was one of the expeditionary forces of the Ottoman Army.- Order of Battle :...
) and Halil Bey units (1st Expeditionary Force
1st Expeditionary Force (Ottoman Empire)
1st Expeditionary Force or First Expeditionary Force of the Ottoman Empire was one of the expeditionary forces of the Ottoman Army.-Order of Battle:...
) who were to move towards Tabriz from the bridgehead established at Qotur. However, the Battle of Sarıkamısh depleted the Ottoman forces and these forces to be deploy to Persia needed elsewhere. On January 10 the 5th Expeditionary Force, which was on the way to Persia, was rerouted north to the Third Army
Third Army (Ottoman Empire)
The Ottoman Third Army was originally established in the Balkans and later defended the northern and eastern parts of the Ottoman Empire. Its initial headquarters was at Salonica. With the onset of World War I, it moved to Erzurum Fortress. The headquarters was moved to Susehir after the Battle...
and soon it was followed by the 1st Expeditionary Force.
1915
In 1915, Wilhelm Wassmuss conferred with local chiefs and distributed pamphlets urging revolt. He was arrested by a local chief, but managed to escape from British custody. He hoped to incite a revolt through pro-German members of the Persian government in conjunction of invasion of Ottoman troops towards KermanshahKermanshah
Kermanshah is a city in and the capital of Kermanshah Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 784,602, in 198,117 families.The overwhelming majority of Kermanshahi people are Shi'a Muslims...
and Hamadan
Hamadan
-Culture:Hamadan is home to many poets and cultural celebrities. The city is also said to be among the world's oldest continuously inhabited cities.Handicrafts: Hamadan has always been well known for handicrafts like leather, ceramic, and beautiful carpets....
.
On January 4, 1915, a volunteer detachment led by Omer Naci Bey, who was sent to Persia on a special mission by Talat Pasha, captured the city of Urmia. One week later, the "Mosul Group" commanded by Omer Fevzi Bey entered Tabriz, without facing much resistance. Apparently taking the Russian higher command completely by surprise. Though referred as Khalil Bey by Aram, Omer Fevzi with his [superior] forces captured the city of Urmia in a few hours and marched on Salmast. At the end of 1914, Omer Fevzi who was identified as Khalil took nearly a thousand Russians prisoners. On January 26–28, 1915, in Sufian
Sufian
Sufian is a village in Badakhshan Province in north-eastern Afghanistan.Sufian is a muslim name for males.The name Sufian was given to a famous person, Sufian Sorathia.Also see Abu Sufyan ibn Harb...
area, General Chernozubov had a brief fighting. Russia sent a strong force which succeeded in recapturing the city. On January 30, Chernozubov entered Tabriz.
On February 3, 1915, General Nazarbekov launched a counter-offensive. This time, the Van Gendarmerie Division succeeded in holding its lines.
In early March, Nazarbekov attacked with a stronger force. He had seven battalions in total. On 7 March, Van Gendarmerie Division evacuated Dilman and began to withdraw, reaching Qotur three days later and entrenching there.
Baskale
Başkale is a town and district located in south-eastern Turkey in Van Province. There is one municipality in the Başkale district, the town centre, which was established 1937...
after the Battle of Diliman (April 15, 1915), securing the situation. Halil Bey received the following cable from Enver Pasha and leave this theater of war: "Van is silenced. Roads to Bitlis and Iraq are under danger. In order to avoid even greater threats, withdraw as soon as possible and join the Third Army which would take control of these gateways."
On May 8, 1915, one of the twelve Armenian messengers from the Siege of Van
Siege of Vān
The Siege of Vān occurred in 1547 when Suleiman the Magnificent attacked Persia in his second campaign of the Ottoman-Safavid War ....
had got through to Persia An Armenian volunteer unit with Andranik, along with 1200 man, and commander Chernoroyal's division dispatched toward the Bashkaleh. On May 7, they captured Bashkaleh. This group from Persia reach the City of Van on May 18. They had expected to find Van still in a state of siege and were amazed at finding it in the hands of the Armenians. When word got to Yudenich, he sent a brigade
Brigade
A brigade is a major tactical military formation that is typically composed of two to five battalions, plus supporting elements depending on the era and nationality of a given army and could be perceived as an enlarged/reinforced regiment...
of Trans-Baikal Cossacks under General Trukhin. With Van secure, fighting shifted farther west for the rest of the summer.
During July 1915, Russian forces at the Caucasus Campaign
Caucasus Campaign
The Caucasus Campaign comprised armed conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire, later including Azerbaijan, Armenia, Central Caspian Dictatorship and the UK as part of the Middle Eastern theatre or alternatively named as part of the Caucasus Campaign during World War I...
had a general retreat which one Russian column retreated up to Persian frontier. This retreat was the consequence of events at June 1915. Yudenich planned an attack to limit the Ottomans at Moush and Manzikert
Malazgirt
Malazgirt is a town in Muş Province in eastern Turkey, with a population of 23,697 .-Founding:...
. He planned to outflank from Beyazit and Persian Azerbaijan towards Van. However, the Russian advance toward the Caucuses campaign did not last long. The Russian forces suffered reverses. The command of Khalil Bey Eleven divisions of regular troops attacked the very center of the Russian Caucasian advance. In a few days they with Battle of Malazgirt July 16, and later Battle of Kara Killisse
Battle of Kara Killisse (1915)
The Battle of Kara Killisse was a battle on the Caucasus front in July 1915 after the Battle of Manzikert. In Russian historical literature, this engagement is considered as a part of "Alashkert defensive operation" ....
the Russian army retreated.
In August 1915, as the British occupied Bushire, the gendarmes under Akhgar retreated to Burazjan.
In November 1915, Major Pesyan
Colonel Pesian
Colonel Mohammad Taqi-Khan Pessian , born into an aristocratic family in Tabriz, was a popular military leader of Iran and became a national hero after his assassination...
as commander of Gendarmerie in Hamedan launched an attack on the pro-Russian Persian Cossack Brigade at the Battle of Musalla. His gendarmes managed to disarm the Persian Cossacks and he managed to win some of the cossacks to join his forces in a patriotic speech he made to them after their defeat. After this victory, Russians advanced on the Persian Gendermerie, in Robat-i-Karim forces under Mohammad Hossein Jahanbani and in Hamedan-Kermanshah road forces under Major Pesyan
Colonel Pesian
Colonel Mohammad Taqi-Khan Pessian , born into an aristocratic family in Tabriz, was a popular military leader of Iran and became a national hero after his assassination...
and Azizollah Zarghami could not defend Hamedan against an advancing Russian Caucasus Army which was superior in numbers and weapons. In Soltanabad, gendarmerie force under Masoud Kayhan were also defeated by the Russians. The gendarmes then retreated to Kermanshah. On November 10, 1915, pro-Central powers Persian Gendarmerie under Ali Quli Khan Pasyan defeat pro-British Khamseh tribal forces of Ibrahim Khan Qavam-ul-Mulk and capture Shiraz. All British residents of Shiraz are arrested. Gendarms also capture Yazd and Kerman.
In the middle of November 1915, General Yudenitch who was managing the Caucasian Campaign (the nearest to the spot), dispatched two columns into the Persian Azerbaijan; one, under General Nikolai Baratov
Nikolai Baratov
Nikolai Nikolaevich Baratov was an Imperial Russian Army general during World War I and the Russian Civil War.- Biography :...
, with the order to push southwestward through Hamadan to Kermanshah, on the way to Bagdad. The second column advanced through Kum and Kashan to Ispahan. A detachment of the Russian Caucasus Army marched on Tehran. On November 14, The Austro-Hungarian and German Ministers left the capital, but Ahmad Shah Qajar
Ahmad Shah Qajar
Ahmad Shah Qajar was Shah of Iran from July 16, 1909, to October 31, 1925 and the last of the Qajar dynasty.- Reign :...
did not agree to leave his people behind, and the Prince of Reuss undertook to hold strategical points with a force of 6,000 of the Persian gendarmerie, about 3,000 Turkish irregulars, and the disaffected Persian tribesmen, about 15,000 in all. By the end of the month, Tehran was taken by the Russians Caucuses Army and Armenian volunteers.
In December 1915, the Shah was induced to appoint a new pro-Ally cabinet with Prince Firman Firma at its head. On December 15, 1915, Hamadan was captured by the Nikolai Baratov. Baratov's job was not difficult because, there was no significant resistance. During the last days of 1915, Sir Percy Sykes
Percy Sykes
Brigadier-General Sir Percy Molesworth Sykes KCIE, CB, CMG was a soldier, diplomat and scholar, with a considerable literary output. He wrote historical, geographical, and biographical works, as well as describing his travels in Persia. Sykes was born in Brompton, Kent, England the only son of Rev...
assigned a mission with a temporary rank of Brigadier-General to establish a force South Persia Rifles
South Persia Rifles
The South Persia Rifles was a Persian military force recruited by the British in 1916 and under British command. They participated in the Persian Campaign of World War I.-History:...
using the local Tribesmen which would render their service for a price. His mission was to counter the strong German influence in most of South Persia.
1916
In January 1916, Baratov drove the Turks and Persian tribesman and occupied Ramadan. On February 26, Baratov's forces captured Kermanshah. On March 12, Baratov's forces captured Kharind. Baratov reached the Ottoman frontier, 150 miles from Bagdad in the Mesopotamia campaign, by the middle of May. It was expected that this unit would eventually effect a juncture with the British army in Mesopotamia. In fact, a Cossack company of five officers and 110 men left the Baratov's Russian division on May 8, rode southward a distance of about 180 miles through the territory of disaffected tribesmen, crossing several mountain passes at an altitude of 8,000 feet, and reached the British front on the Tigris on May 18.On February 26, 1916, the Russians advanced and defeated the gendarmes who then retreated to Qasr-i-Shirin and managed to hold the region until May 1916, when Qasr-i-Shirin was captured by the Russians. This time, many gendarmes went to live in exile in Istanbul, Mosul and Baghdad. In the spring of 1916, Ibrahim Khan Qavam-ul-Mulk and his Khamseh tribesmen defeated the gendarmes under Ali Quli Khan Pesyan and Ghulam Riza Khan Pesyan who shot and killed each other. Other gendarmes, the German Consul Roever and the Swedish Captain Angman were arrested and tortured.
On May 7, 1916, the next objective of Baratov was Khanaqin. They had to retreat on a strong resistance by the unit led by Şevket Bey. This gave the Turks valuable time to strengthen their defenses. The 6th Division arrived as a reinforcement in northern Persia. Enver Pasha moved this freed unit to Persia. Enver Pasha thought that it was time to strike back.
In late May, facing Baratov was assigned to the XIII Corps
XIII Corps (Ottoman Empire)
The XIII Corps of the Ottoman Empire was one of the corps of the Ottoman Army. It was formed in the early 20th century during Ottoman military reforms.-Order of Battle, 1911 :...
commanded by colonel Ali İhsan Bey
Ali İhsan Sâbis
Ali İhsan Sâbis was the commander for the Sixth Army of the Ottomon Empire. After the war he was exiled to Malta by the British occupation forces. After returning to Turkey, he was appointed to the commandship of the First Army of Turkey...
, who began his advance. Meanwhile, on the Russian side, Baratov was hoping to capture Khanaqin and move down to Baghdad, which could have been taken by the Russians as the Turks and the British were busy with fighting each other. On June 3, he forced Khanaqin once again, but this time the balance had changed. The Ottoman XIII Corps successful repulsed Baratov's forces, and did not leave it there; soon the counter-offensive that was planned launched. Ali İhsan Bey captured Kermanshah on 2 July and took Hamadan on 10 August. Having lost half of his men, Baratov was forced to retreat north. Baratov stopped at the Sultan Bulak range. On August 1916, the gendarmes return to Kermanshah.
On June 12, 1916, the British advance in southern Persia which was undertaken by Percy Sykes column under reached the Kerman. From this point, he supported the Russians operations against the Ottoman Empire until June 1917, when he was withdrawn with the new Persian government.
In 1916, General Chernozubov sent a military exhibition in Hakkyari. The squads within the expedition were led by the Patriarch's brother David; Ismail, Malik of the Upper Tyari; and Andreus, the Jilu Malik.
In December 1916, Baratov began to move on Qoms and Hamadan for clearing Persian forces and Ottoman troops. Both cities fell in the same month.
Count Kaunitz disappeared without a trace, either killing himself or being a victim of assassination by disenchanted coup members. The premature coup was crushed in Tehran as Ahmad Shah Qajar took refuge in the Russian legation, and a sizable Russian force arrived to Tehran under Baratov after they landed in Bandar-e Pahlavi in November of that year. The pro-German coup members of the Majles
Qajar dynasty
The Qajar dynasty was an Iranian royal family of Turkic descent who ruled Persia from 1785 to 1925....
fled to Kirmanshah and Qom
Qom
Qom is a city in Iran. It lies by road southwest of Tehran and is the capital of Qom Province. At the 2006 census, its population was 957,496, in 241,827 families. It is situated on the banks of the Qom River....
without fighting.
1917
In 1917, Mar Binyamin was invited to the Russian embassy by Vasily Nikitin in Urmia for negotiations. Nikitin assured the Assyrians that after the War they will have a national community land in Russia. At the meeting, the Patriarch was accompanied by Agha Putrus. The presence of the armed squads of Assyrians in Urmiya irritated Persians. Persians were afraid that Russians might come back and, united with the Assyrians, proclaim their power in the city.The chaos caused by the Russian Revolution
Russian Revolution of 1917
The Russian Revolution is the collective term for a series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which destroyed the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the Soviet Union. The Tsar was deposed and replaced by a provisional government in the first revolution of February 1917...
put a stop to all Russian military operations. In January 1917, the Grand Duke Dimitri Pavlovich Romanov was sent to join Baratov. Baratov established a Cavalry Corps headquarters at Kasvin in northern Persia. Following months Baratov's forces began to suffer desertions. Baratov had barely an effective regiment in his hand at November 1917 as many of his cossacks to their Stanisa villages.
In April 1917, Baratov meet with a Colonel Rowlandson, who was the liaison to link Caucasian Cavalry Corps with the British Dunsterforce. The new government removed the Grand Duke from his command and reassigned General Yudenich to a meaningless position in Central Asia. He then retired from the army. The Russian army slowly disintegrated until there was no effective military force during the rest of 1917.
On December 16, The Armistice of Erzincan
Armistice of Erzincan
The Armistice of Erzincan or Erzincan Armistice ended the armed conflicts between Russia and Ottoman Empire in the Persian Campaign and Caucasus Campaign of the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. It was signed by the Russians and Ottoman Third Army in Erzincan on December 5, 1917...
(Erzincan Cease-fire Agreement) was signed officially brought an end to the hostilities between Ottoman Empire and Russians Special Transcaucasian Committee
Special Transcaucasian Committee
Special Transcaucasian Committee was established on March 9, 1917, with Member of the State Duma V. A...
. Ottomans and Germans began to dispute possession of the provinces along the border between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Enver Pasha believed that Germany had disregarded Turkish interests when the terms of the armistice were negotiated with Russia and moved on to disregard German interests, sending armed forces to the region. A newly established Ninth Army
Ninth Army (Ottoman Empire)
The Ninth Army of the Ottoman Empire was one of the field armies of the Ottoman Army. It was formed during the World War I.-Order of Battle, June 1918:In June 1918, the army was structured as follows:...
, consisting of the I Caucasian Corps
I Caucasian Corps (Ottoman Empire)
The I Caucasian Corps of the Ottoman Empire was one of the corps of the Ottoman Army...
and IV Corps
IV Corps (Ottoman Empire)
The IV Corps of the Ottoman Empire was one of the corps of the Ottoman Army. It was formed in the early 20th century during Ottoman military reforms...
was sent to Persia, under the command of Yakub Shevki
Yakup Şevki Subaşı
Yakup Şevki Subaşı, also known as Yakub Shevki Pasha was a general of the Ottoman Army and the Turkish Army.-Sources:...
Pasha. The task of this army was to "Stop the British advance in Persia, to prevent them from helping the Bolsheviks, to cover the area between the Lake of Urmia and the Caspian Sea, and, if necessary, to join the Sixth Army
Sixth Army (Ottoman Empire)
The Sixth Army of the Ottoman Empire was one of the field armies of the Ottoman Army. It was formed in the middle 19th century during Ottoman military reforms.- Order of Battle, 1877:In 1877, it was stationed in Baghdad...
for the operation to capture Baghdad."
With the Russian armies began to disintegrate. Van, which was located at the Caucasus Campaign
Caucasus Campaign
The Caucasus Campaign comprised armed conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire, later including Azerbaijan, Armenia, Central Caspian Dictatorship and the UK as part of the Middle Eastern theatre or alternatively named as part of the Caucasus Campaign during World War I...
war zone, was completely cut off from the Allies. At this time, the British Army did not move very far beyond Baghdad in the Mesopotamian campaign
Mesopotamian Campaign
The Mesopotamian campaign was a campaign in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I fought between the Allies represented by the British Empire, mostly troops from the Indian Empire, and the Central Powers, mostly of the Ottoman Empire.- Background :...
. Armenians of the Van attempted to hold their own.
1918
During 1918, British invited Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers organized them under the command of Lionel DunstervilleLionel Dunsterville
General Lionel Charles Dunsterville CB, CSI was a British general, who led the so-called Dunsterforce across present-day Iraq and Iran towards Caucasus and oil-rich Baku.-Biography:...
at Baghdad. It was named the Dunsterforce
Dunsterforce
Established in 1917, Dunsterforce was an Allied military mission of under 1,000 Australian, New Zealand, British, and Canadian troops , accompanied by armoured cars, deployed from Hamadan some 350 km across Qajar Persia. It was named after its commander General Lionel Dunsterville...
. The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach Caucasus via Persia. It was planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Ally elements that still existed in the Caucuses.
In February 1918, the Caucasian Cavalry Corps only consisted of Baratov, General Lastochkin, Colonel Bicherakov, Colonel Baron Meden and about 1000 loyal Kuban and Terek cossacks. Baratov and his men assisted, even though new Russian government had a peace agreement, the British in Persia until the end of World War I.
On 3 March 1918, The Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, mediated by South African Andrik Fuller, at Brest-Litovsk between Russia and the Central Powers, headed by Germany, marking Russia's exit from World War I.While the treaty was practically obsolete before the end of the year,...
with the Russian SFSR. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border between Russia and Ottoman Empire to be pulled back to prewar levels and the cities Batum, Kars
Kars
Kars is a city in northeast Turkey and the capital of Kars Province. The population of the city is 73,826 as of 2010.-Etymology:As Chorzene, the town appears in Roman historiography as part of ancient Armenia...
, and Ardahan
Ardahan
Ardahan is a city in northeastern Turkey, near the Georgian border.-Ancient and medieval:In Ancient times the region was called Gogarene, which is assumed to derive from the name of Gugars, who were a Proto-Kartvelian tribe...
to be transferred to Ottoman Empire.
In April 1918, Armenians of Van were eventually evacuate and withdraw from the province of Van and retreated eastward toward the Persian Azerbaijan. Early in 1918, Ottoman Third Army
Third Army (Ottoman Empire)
The Ottoman Third Army was originally established in the Balkans and later defended the northern and eastern parts of the Ottoman Empire. Its initial headquarters was at Salonica. With the onset of World War I, it moved to Erzurum Fortress. The headquarters was moved to Susehir after the Battle...
moved to offense. Retreating Armenians from Van, joined by the Assyrians in defense, made a stand near Dilman but continue to retreat southward around Lake Urmiah. Third Army did not follow this unit.
On 8 June 1918, the IV Corps
IV Corps (Ottoman Empire)
The IV Corps of the Ottoman Empire was one of the corps of the Ottoman Army. It was formed in the early 20th century during Ottoman military reforms...
entered Tabriz. Yakub Shevki faced an Armenian volunteer force of 4,000 men coming from Van. They aimed to break through the Şahtahtı-Tabriz line and join with Ozanian's forces. On 15 June, the 12th Division of the IV Corps defeated this Armenian unit at a battle to the north of Dilman. The city of Dilman was captured on 18 June. On 24 June, Ozanian managed to defeat opposing units and to lay siege on the city of Hoy. The 12th Division came to rescue and repulsed Ozanian's forces. At the same time, the 5th Division of the IV Corps had to retreat against a 1,500-strong Armenian force. In the south, Urmia fall to the IV Corps on 31 July. By the end of July, there was an increasing British presence in the Persia and the Ninth Army's advance came to a halt.
During July 1918, the British Army occupied the greater portion of Mesopotamia with the Mesopotamian Campaign, as well as a large part of Persian Azerbaijan. Preparations were made for the establishment of a large camp for Armenians refugees near Bakubah, Iraq. Towards the end of September it was decided to raise four battalions from the Armenians refugee at Bakubah on the lines of an Indian Infantry battalion. 2nd Battalion was established by Van Armenians. 3rd Battalion was established by Armenians from other regions. The G.O.C. North Persian Force decided to locate 2nd Battalion to Senna
Sanandaj
Sanandaj , also Romanized as Senneh and Sinneh) is a city in and the capital of Kurdistan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 311,446, in 81,380 families....
. 3rd Battalion moved to Bijar
Bijar
Bijar is a city is a city in and capital of Bijar County, Kurdistan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 46,156, in 12,312 families...
.
By September 1918, the Ottomans consolidated their control over northern Persia, between Tabriz and the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. But they lost the rest of the region to British. They would hold this territory until the armistice.
On 30 October 1918, the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros
Armistice of Mudros
The Armistice of Moudros , concluded on 30 October 1918, ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I...
and the military operations ended.
Aftermath
After the Ottoman Empire lost World War I, the partitioning of the Ottoman EmpirePartitioning of the Ottoman Empire
The Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was a political event that occurred after World War I. The huge conglomeration of territories and peoples formerly ruled by the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new nations.The partitioning was planned from the early days of the war,...
soon followed. Enver Pasha's political vision which stated as "If Russians beaten in the key cities of Persia, they could be forced to out from the region", failed as Russian and Bakhtiari troops landed in 1920 and forced majles to temporarily cease. The immediate outcome of the Campaign was the Anglo-Persian Agreement
Anglo-Persian Agreement
The Anglo-Persian Agreement was a document involving Great Britain and Persia and centered around drilling rights of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. It was never ratified by the Majlis. This "agreement" was issued by British Foreign Secretary Earl Curzon to the Persian government in August of 1919...
, which gave the drilling rights of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company
Anglo-Persian Oil Company
The Anglo-Persian Oil Company was founded in 1908 following the discovery of a large oil field in Masjed Soleiman, Iran. It was the first company to extract petroleum from the Middle East...
. The "agreement" was issued by British Foreign Secretary Earl Curzon
George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston
George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, KG, GCSI, GCIE, PC , known as The Lord Curzon of Kedleston between 1898 and 1911 and as The Earl Curzon of Kedleston between 1911 and 1921, was a British Conservative statesman who was Viceroy of India and Foreign Secretary...
to the Persian government in August 1919. It stated a guarantee of British access to Iranian oil fields. In 1919, northern Persia was occupied by the British General William Edmund Ironside to enforce the Armistice of Mudros
Armistice of Mudros
The Armistice of Moudros , concluded on 30 October 1918, ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I...
conditions and help General Dunsterville and Colonel Bicherakhov to contain Bolshevik
Bolshevik
The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists , derived from bol'shinstvo, "majority") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903....
influence (of Mirza Kuchak Khan
Mirza Kuchak Khan
Mīrzā Kūchik Khān was an early twentieth century revolutionary and is considered a national hero in modern Iranian history...
) in the north. Britain attempted to establish a protectorate
Protectorate
In history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...
in Iran. Britain also took tighter military control over the increasingly lucrative oil fields.
After the Russian left the Persia in 1917 (for a short period—later to come back) following the Russian revolution, Mar Shimmun wholly understood the difficult situation the Assyrians. In 1918, he was convincing Agha Putrus not to fight against Persians but to make peace with them in his messages. We can see that Assyrians did not put down their weapons as the Patriarch advised but on the contrary chose to attack. After the defeat Major Pesyan
Colonel Pesian
Colonel Mohammad Taqi-Khan Pessian , born into an aristocratic family in Tabriz, was a popular military leader of Iran and became a national hero after his assassination...
went to live in exile in Berlin. During his time in Berlin, he was trained as a pilot in the German Airforce and was rewarded with the Eisernes Kreuz Medal for shooting down more than 25 enemy aircraft during World War I.
In late 1920, the Soviet Socialist Republic in Rasht was preparing to march on Tehran with "a guerrilla force of 1500 Jangalis, Armenians, and interestingly this time Kurds, and Azerbaijanis were on their side", reinforced by the Soviet Red Army. Britain attempted to establish a protectorate
Protectorate
In history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...
in Iran following 1919, which this goal aided by the Soviet Union's withdrawal in 1921. In that year, a military coup established Reza Khan, a Persian officer of the Persian Cossack Brigade, as dictator and then hereditary Shah
Shah
Shāh is the title of the ruler of certain Southwest Asian and Central Asian countries, especially Persia , and derives from the Persian word shah, meaning "king".-History:...
of the new Pahlavi dynasty (1925). Reza Shah curtailed the power of the majles. He effectively turned it into a rubber stamp organization. While Reza Khan and his Cossack brigade were securing Tehran, the Persian envoy was in Moscow negotiating a treaty with the Bolsheviks for the removal of Soviet troops from Persia. The coup d'état of 1921 and the emergence of Reza Khan were assisted by the British government that wished to halt the Bolshevik's penetration of Iran, particularly because of the threat it posed to the British colonial possession of India. It is thought that British provided "ammunition, supplies and pay" for Reza's troops.
See also
- Military history of IranMilitary history of IranWith thousands of years of recorded history, and due to an unchanging geographic condition, Iran has had a long, varied, and checkered military culture and history, ranging from triumphant and unchallenged ancient military supremacy affording effective superpower status in its day, to a series of...
- Russo-Persian WarsRusso-Persian WarsThe Russo-Persian Wars were a series of wars fought between the Russian Empire and Persia in the 18th and 19th centuries, the most important of which were:...
- Turko-Persian WarTurko-Persian WarThe Ottoman-Qajar War was fought between Qajar Empire and the Ottoman Empire from 1821 to 1823.After severe losses in Georgia during the Russo-Persian War of 1804-13, Crown Prince Abbas Mirza of Persia vowed to modernize his armies...