Paul Greengard
Encyclopedia
Paul Greengard is an American
neuroscientist
best known for his work on the molecular
and cellular
function of neuron
s. In 2000, Greengard, Arvid Carlsson
and Eric Kandel were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system
. He is currently Vincent Astor
Professor at Rockefeller University
, and serves on the Scientific Advisory Board of Cure Alzheimer's Fund
.
s. Specifically, Greengard and his fellow researchers studied the behavior of second messenger cascades that transform the docking of a neurotransmitter with a receptor into permanent changes in the neuron. In a series of experiments, Greengard and his colleagues showed that when dopamine
interacts with a receptor
on the cell membrane
of a neuron, it causes an increase in cyclic AMP inside the cell. This increase of cyclic AMP, in turn activates a protein called protein kinase A, which turns the function other proteins on or off by adding phosphate
groups in a reaction known as phosphorylation
. The proteins activated by phosphorylation can then perform a number of changes in the cell: transcribing DNA
to make new proteins, moving more receptors to the synapse
(and thus increasing the neuron's sensitivity), or moving ion channel
s to the cell surface (and thus increasing the cell's excitability). He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2000 "for showing how neurotransmitters act on the cell and can activate a central molecule known as DARPP-32".
. During World War II
, he served in the United States Navy
as an electronics
technician at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
working on an early warning system against Japanese kamikaze
planes. After the war, he attended Hamilton College where he graduated in 1948 with a bachelor's degree in mathematics
and physics
. He decided against graduate school in physics because most post-war physics research was focusing on nuclear weapon
s, and instead became interested in biophysics
. He began his graduate studies at Johns Hopkins University
in the lab of Haldan Keffer Hartline
. Inspired by a lecture by Alan Hodgkin, Greengard began work on the molecular and cellular function of neurons. In 1953, Greengard received his PhD and began postdoctoral work at the University of London
, Cambridge University
, and the University of Amsterdam. He then became director of the Department of Biochemistry at the Geigy Research Laboratories. After leaving Geigy in 1967 he worked briefly at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine
and Vanderbilt University
before taking a position as Professor in the Department of Pharmacology at Yale University
. In 1983 he joined the faculty of The Rockefeller University. Dr. Greengard is a member of the Board of Scientific Governors at The Scripps Research Institute
. He is the acting chairman of the Fisher Center for Alzheimer's Research Foundation and serves on the board of the Michael Stern Parkinson's Research Foundation. Both internationally-renowned foundations support the research conducted in the Greengard Laboratory at The Rockefeller University.
, and is married to Ursula von Rydingsvard
. Claude holds a PhD in mathematics from UC Berkeley, and is a vice president at IBM. Leslie holds an MD from the Yale School of Medicine
and a PhD in computer science from Yale University
, and is a professor of mathematics and computer science at and director of the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences
at NYU
, a winner of the Steele Prize
for a seminal contribution to research, a recipient of both a Packard Foundation
Fellowship and an NSF
Presidential Young Investigator Award
, and a member of both the U.S. National Academy of Engineering and the U.S. National Academy of Sciences
. Ursula is the founder and COO of YouHere Productions. YouHere productions was founded in 2007 and specializes in Web Video. YouHere is the recipient of multiple Telly Awards.
, an award for women scientists named after his mother and established in 2004. The award is to combat discrimination
against women in science
, since, as Greengard observed, "[women] are not yet receiving awards and honors at a level commensurate with their achievements." The $50,000 annual prize is awarded to an outstanding woman conducting biomedical research.
at a Boy Scout Jamboree in New York
. He is currently married to artist Ursula von Rydingsvard
.
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
neuroscientist
Neuroscientist
A neuroscientist is an individual who studies the scientific field of neuroscience or any of its related sub-fields...
best known for his work on the molecular
Molecule
A molecule is an electrically neutral group of at least two atoms held together by covalent chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their electrical charge...
and cellular
Cell (biology)
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
function of neuron
Neuron
A neuron is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits information by electrical and chemical signaling. Chemical signaling occurs via synapses, specialized connections with other cells. Neurons connect to each other to form networks. Neurons are the core components of the nervous...
s. In 2000, Greengard, Arvid Carlsson
Arvid Carlsson
Arvid Carlsson is a Swedish scientist who is best known for his work with the neurotransmitter dopamine and its effects in Parkinson's disease...
and Eric Kandel were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system
Nervous system
The nervous system is an organ system containing a network of specialized cells called neurons that coordinate the actions of an animal and transmit signals between different parts of its body. In most animals the nervous system consists of two parts, central and peripheral. The central nervous...
. He is currently Vincent Astor
Vincent Astor
William Vincent Astor was a businessman and philanthropist and a member of the prominent Astor family.-Early life:...
Professor at Rockefeller University
Rockefeller University
The Rockefeller University is a private university offering postgraduate and postdoctoral education. It has a strong concentration in the biological sciences. It is also known for producing numerous Nobel laureates...
, and serves on the Scientific Advisory Board of Cure Alzheimer's Fund
Cure Alzheimer's Fund
Cure Alzheimer's Fund, a 'doing business as' name for the Alzheimer's Disease Research Foundation, is a 501 public charity established to provide funding for targeted research into the causes of Alzheimer’s disease.-Mission:...
.
Research
Greengard's research has focused on events inside the neuron caused by neurotransmitterNeurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse. Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles clustered beneath the membrane on the presynaptic side of a synapse, and are released into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to...
s. Specifically, Greengard and his fellow researchers studied the behavior of second messenger cascades that transform the docking of a neurotransmitter with a receptor into permanent changes in the neuron. In a series of experiments, Greengard and his colleagues showed that when dopamine
Dopamine
Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter present in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this substituted phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five known types of dopamine receptors—D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5—and their...
interacts with a receptor
Receptor (biochemistry)
In biochemistry, a receptor is a molecule found on the surface of a cell, which receives specific chemical signals from neighbouring cells or the wider environment within an organism...
on the cell membrane
Cell membrane
The cell membrane or plasma membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. It basically protects the cell...
of a neuron, it causes an increase in cyclic AMP inside the cell. This increase of cyclic AMP, in turn activates a protein called protein kinase A, which turns the function other proteins on or off by adding phosphate
Phosphate
A phosphate, an inorganic chemical, is a salt of phosphoric acid. In organic chemistry, a phosphate, or organophosphate, is an ester of phosphoric acid. Organic phosphates are important in biochemistry and biogeochemistry or ecology. Inorganic phosphates are mined to obtain phosphorus for use in...
groups in a reaction known as phosphorylation
Phosphorylation
Phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphate group to a protein or other organic molecule. Phosphorylation activates or deactivates many protein enzymes....
. The proteins activated by phosphorylation can then perform a number of changes in the cell: transcribing DNA
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
to make new proteins, moving more receptors to the synapse
Synapse
In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell...
(and thus increasing the neuron's sensitivity), or moving ion channel
Ion channel
Ion channels are pore-forming proteins that help establish and control the small voltage gradient across the plasma membrane of cells by allowing the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient. They are present in the membranes that surround all biological cells...
s to the cell surface (and thus increasing the cell's excitability). He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2000 "for showing how neurotransmitters act on the cell and can activate a central molecule known as DARPP-32".
Biography
Greengard was born in New York CityNew York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
. During World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, he served in the United States Navy
United States Navy
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U.S. Navy is the largest in the world; its battle fleet tonnage is greater than that of the next 13 largest navies combined. The U.S...
as an electronics
Electronics
Electronics is the branch of science, engineering and technology that deals with electrical circuits involving active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies...
technician at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. MIT has five schools and one college, containing a total of 32 academic departments, with a strong emphasis on scientific and technological education and research.Founded in 1861 in...
working on an early warning system against Japanese kamikaze
Kamikaze
The were suicide attacks by military aviators from the Empire of Japan against Allied naval vessels in the closing stages of the Pacific campaign of World War II, designed to destroy as many warships as possible....
planes. After the war, he attended Hamilton College where he graduated in 1948 with a bachelor's degree in mathematics
Mathematics
Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...
and physics
Physics
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...
. He decided against graduate school in physics because most post-war physics research was focusing on nuclear weapon
Nuclear weapon
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first fission bomb test released the same amount...
s, and instead became interested in biophysics
Biophysics
Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physical science to study biological systems. Studies included under the branches of biophysics span all levels of biological organization, from the molecular scale to whole organisms and ecosystems...
. He began his graduate studies at Johns Hopkins University
Johns Hopkins University
The Johns Hopkins University, commonly referred to as Johns Hopkins, JHU, or simply Hopkins, is a private research university based in Baltimore, Maryland, United States...
in the lab of Haldan Keffer Hartline
Haldan Keffer Hartline
Haldan Keffer Hartline was an American physiologist who was a co-winner of the 1967 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in analyzing the neurophysiological mechanisms of vision.Hartline began his study of retinal electrophysiology as a National Research Council Fellow at Johns...
. Inspired by a lecture by Alan Hodgkin, Greengard began work on the molecular and cellular function of neurons. In 1953, Greengard received his PhD and began postdoctoral work at the University of London
University of London
-20th century:Shortly after 6 Burlington Gardens was vacated, the University went through a period of rapid expansion. Bedford College, Royal Holloway and the London School of Economics all joined in 1900, Regent's Park College, which had affiliated in 1841 became an official divinity school of the...
, Cambridge University
University of Cambridge
The University of Cambridge is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest university in both the United Kingdom and the English-speaking world , and the seventh-oldest globally...
, and the University of Amsterdam. He then became director of the Department of Biochemistry at the Geigy Research Laboratories. After leaving Geigy in 1967 he worked briefly at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Albert Einstein College of Medicine is a graduate school of Yeshiva University. It is a not-for-profit, private, nonsectarian medical school located on the Jack and Pearl Resnick Campus in the Morris Park neighborhood of the borough of the Bronx of New York City...
and Vanderbilt University
Vanderbilt University
Vanderbilt University is a private research university located in Nashville, Tennessee, United States. Founded in 1873, the university is named for shipping and rail magnate "Commodore" Cornelius Vanderbilt, who provided Vanderbilt its initial $1 million endowment despite having never been to the...
before taking a position as Professor in the Department of Pharmacology at Yale University
Yale University
Yale University is a private, Ivy League university located in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States...
. In 1983 he joined the faculty of The Rockefeller University. Dr. Greengard is a member of the Board of Scientific Governors at The Scripps Research Institute
The Scripps Research Institute
The Scripps Research Institute is an American medical research facility that focuses on research in the basic biomedical sciences. Headquartered in La Jolla, California, with a sister facility in Jupiter, Florida, the institute is home to 3,000 scientists, technicians, graduate students, and...
. He is the acting chairman of the Fisher Center for Alzheimer's Research Foundation and serves on the board of the Michael Stern Parkinson's Research Foundation. Both internationally-renowned foundations support the research conducted in the Greengard Laboratory at The Rockefeller University.
Family
Paul Greengard has two sons, Claude and LeslieLeslie Greengard
Leslie F. Greengard is an American mathematician, doctor of medicine and computer scientist. He is co-inventor of the fast multipole method in 1987, recognised as one of the top-ten algorithms of the 20th century....
, and is married to Ursula von Rydingsvard
Ursula von Rydingsvard
Ursula von Rydingsvard born in Deensen, Germany is a sculptor who has been working in Brooklyn, New York for the past 30 years. She received her MFA from Columbia University in 1975 after which time she started to work with cedar, a material through which she has explored a wide range of...
. Claude holds a PhD in mathematics from UC Berkeley, and is a vice president at IBM. Leslie holds an MD from the Yale School of Medicine
Yale School of Medicine
The Yale School of Medicine at Yale University is a private medical school located in New Haven, Connecticut, U.S. It was founded in 1810 as The Medical Institution of Yale College, and formally opened its doors in 1813....
and a PhD in computer science from Yale University
Yale University
Yale University is a private, Ivy League university located in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States...
, and is a professor of mathematics and computer science at and director of the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences
Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences
The Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences is an independent division of New York University under the Faculty of Arts & Science that serves as a center for research and advanced training in computer science and mathematics...
at NYU
New York University
New York University is a private, nonsectarian research university based in New York City. NYU's main campus is situated in the Greenwich Village section of Manhattan...
, a winner of the Steele Prize
Leroy P. Steele Prizes
The Leroy P. Steele Prizes are awarded every year by the American Mathematical Society, for distinguished research work and writing in the field of mathematics. Since 1993 there has been a formal division into three categories....
for a seminal contribution to research, a recipient of both a Packard Foundation
David and Lucile Packard Foundation
The David and Lucile Packard Foundation is a private foundation that provides grants to not-for-profit organizations. It was created in 1964 by David Packard and his wife Lucile Salter Packard. Following David Packard's death in 1996, the Foundation became the beneficiary of part of his estate...
Fellowship and an NSF
National Science Foundation
The National Science Foundation is a United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health...
Presidential Young Investigator Award
Presidential Young Investigator Award
The Presidential Young Investigator Award was awarded by the National Science Foundation. The program operated from 1984 to 1991, and was replaced by the NSF Young Investigator Awards and Presidential Faculty Fellows Program...
, and a member of both the U.S. National Academy of Engineering and the U.S. National Academy of Sciences
United States National Academy of Sciences
The National Academy of Sciences is a corporation in the United States whose members serve pro bono as "advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine." As a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and...
. Ursula is the founder and COO of YouHere Productions. YouHere productions was founded in 2007 and specializes in Web Video. YouHere is the recipient of multiple Telly Awards.
Pearl Meister Greengard Prize
Greengard used his Nobel Prize honorarium to fund the Pearl Meister Greengard PrizePearl Meister Greengard Prize
The Pearl Meister Greengard Prize is an award for women scientists in biology given annually by .The Prize was founded by Nobel laureate Paul Greengard and his wife Ursula von Rydingsvard in honor of Greengard's mother, Pearl Meister Greengard, who died giving birth to him. Greengard began funding...
, an award for women scientists named after his mother and established in 2004. The award is to combat discrimination
Sexism
Sexism, also known as gender discrimination or sex discrimination, is the application of the belief or attitude that there are characteristics implicit to one's gender that indirectly affect one's abilities in unrelated areas...
against women in science
Women in science
Women have made contributions and sacrifices to science from the earliest times. Like many men in science, women have received little or no distinction for their work during their lifetimes. Science is generally and historically a male-dominated field, and evidence suggests that this is due to...
, since, as Greengard observed, "[women] are not yet receiving awards and honors at a level commensurate with their achievements." The $50,000 annual prize is awarded to an outstanding woman conducting biomedical research.
Trivia
Greengard won first place in a potato-sack raceSack race
The sack race or gunny sack race is a competitive game in which participants place both of their legs inside a sack or pillow case that reaches their waist or neck and jump forward from a starting point toward a finish line. The first person to cross the finish line is the winner of the race.Sack...
at a Boy Scout Jamboree in New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
. He is currently married to artist Ursula von Rydingsvard
Ursula von Rydingsvard
Ursula von Rydingsvard born in Deensen, Germany is a sculptor who has been working in Brooklyn, New York for the past 30 years. She received her MFA from Columbia University in 1975 after which time she started to work with cedar, a material through which she has explored a wide range of...
.
Awards and honors
- NAS Award in the NeurosciencesNAS Award in the NeurosciencesThe NAS Award in the Neurosciences is awarded by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences "in recognition of extraordinary contributions to progress in the fields of neuroscience, including neurochemistry, neurophysiology, neuropharmacology, developmental neuroscience, neuroanatomy, and behavioral...
from the National Academy of Sciences]], (1991) - Nobel PrizeNobel PrizeThe Nobel Prizes are annual international awards bestowed by Scandinavian committees in recognition of cultural and scientific advances. The will of the Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, established the prizes in 1895...
(2000) - Member (elected) (2006), Serbian Academy of Sciences and ArtsSerbian Academy of Sciences and ArtsThe Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts is the most prominent academic institution in Serbia today...
- Member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and LettersNorwegian Academy of Science and LettersThe Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters is a learned society based in Oslo, Norway.-History:The University of Oslo was established in 1811. The idea of a learned society in Christiania surfaced for the first time in 1841. The city of Throndhjem had no university, but had a learned...
.
Sources
- Les Prix Nobel. 2001. The Nobel Prizes 2000, Editor Tore Frängsmyr, Nobel Foundation: Stockholm.