Oskar Sosnowski
Encyclopedia
Oskar Sosnowski was a leading Polish
architect
and art conservator and restorer
of monuments during the period between World War I
and World War II
.
, in the Engineering and Construction Faculty Department
.
In the fall of 1918, the recently renovated building of the Faculty of Architecture at the Warsaw University of Technology
(Warsaw Polytechnic) was occupied by the Bolshevik
army causing many Polish students enlisted to drive them out, and following this brief interruption, new professors arrived at the Faculty; including Sosnowski, who took the post of the Chair of Polish Architecture Division. In 1919, he became a professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic. In 1922, he initiated the establishment of the Association of Polish City Planners. In 1929, he founded the Department of Architecture of Poland at Warsaw Polytechnic.
Sosnowski's projects were based on traditional historical forms, but he used new materials as reinforced concrete
. He also developed proposals for communities that for the first time applied a new urban form of building around a lake or other feature.
Sosnowski was one of the greatest Polish architects of the period that developed the Professors' Quarter in Warsaw. A unique complex of 21 houses built in the Powiśle
district of Warsaw (within the triangular area delineated by the Górnośląska, Myśliwiecka, and Hoene-Wrońskiego streets). They were built between 1923 and 1926 by professors at Warsaw Polytechnic's Faculty of Architecture, with the idea for each architect designs a house for himself. The houses have been preserved in an almost perfect condition and are now a treasured monument of architecture and urban planning.
Sosnowski was quite interested in Jewish culture, and he began a project to inventory synagogue
s in Poland during the 1920s. Of especial importance is the documentation, measured drawings and photographs made in the period between the First and Second World Wars by the Department of Polish Architecture of the Polytechnic of Warsaw, and in particular, the efforts of Professor Sosnowski and other architects, art historians and students which he led, has provided a unique collection of documentation Sosnowski, photographer and art historian Szymon Zajczyk, and Warsaw Polytechnic students documented these wooden structures through architectural drawing
s, replica paintings, and photographs. Recognizing the historical importance and artistic value of this architecture and fearing its impending destruction with the rise of anti-Semitism in Eastern Europe, this team compiled extensive data and produced architectural drawings, color and detail studies and photographs of many synagogues. Much of this project was destroyed during World War II but a substantial amount survived. Today the documentation is all that remain of the wooden synagogues of Poland.
He also prepared an extensive database documenting of other buildings and design elements that has now become part of the work in preserving the European Wooden Churches Heritage. The collection includes drawings and photographs concerning monumental as well as vernacular architecture. It was rescued during the burning of Warsaw by the Nazis and the collection was continued after war, so that it consists now more than 35 thousand drawings – plans, sections, facade
s, and details along with thousands of photographs, and is probably the biggest archive of this kind in Poland.
Work by Sosnowski within the Polish Architecture Division in the Department of Architecture was conducted in the following areas: folk art
and rural construction, the history of art, inventory measurements, town planning, painting, and history of fortifications, as well as in studios dealing with interiors and equipment, liturgical (sacral) art, Jewish art, and garden architecture. The amassed collections of measurements, photographs, and slides totaled thousands, and the number of publications exceeded twenty.
after the war). The Germans then killed or interred 41 professors, including Sosnowski, and the university soon became an important point of resistance during the 1944 uprising against the Germans.
. This seems particularly disappointing when one considers the work of a number of designers at the threshold of 20th century modernism
. How many lavish books have there been devoted, during the last 50 years, to masters such as Victor Horta
, Charles Voysey
or Peter Behrens
? But to find a broader appreciation of Sosnowski’s or Jan Koszczyc-Witkiewicz
’s work, let alone adequate illustrations, is still virtually impossible for a non-Polish audience. The reasons for this lacunae are manifold. Firstly, for Western architectural historians, particularly German-language ones, such as Nikolaus Pevsner
, who began his writings on the history of Modern architecture and design in the early 1930s, a Polish work worth noting could simply not be imagined. Polish art historians and their publishers have been very slow to produce thorough investigations and adequately illustrated books about those masters, and even what has been brought out during the last few years still appears to be destined entirely for internal consumption. A comprehensive and discerning book on Polish 20th century architecture placed into a general Western context is still badly wanting.
Here the aim is to signal some of the broader issues in the work of Oskar Sosnowski, arguably Poland’s most eminent designer in the period 1910-1940. What makes the task rather difficult is that neither the architect himself, nor Polish architectural critics of the time supplied us with much explanatory discourse.
Sosnowski’s professed aim early on was to create a new ‘old’ national style, as did many of his colleagues in Poland and in most other countries. German writers and architects had adopted a primitivist approach to village architecture from the 1890s and conceivably Sosnowski might have seen the publications advocating a ‘folkart’ style for rural churches by the Berlin architect and publicist Oskar Hossfeld (e.g.in his Stadt und Landkirchen, Berlin Ernst 1905 and later eds.; many of his churches are found in the former Prussian parts of Poland).
The question whether Sosnowski ever arrived at a new (or old)national style cannot be answered here. But in any case, his Warsaw church (Church of the Immaculate Conception (Sw.Jakuba) of 1909 shows an astonishing range in its formal language, from the immense spatial subtlety and complexity of the circular formations of the East end, to the deliberately brutal treatment of the brickwork in the massive tower. The latter points directly to his next phase of numerous fiercely experimental projects of c.1912-1915, which can only be labelled as a primitivist kind of expressionism, and as such we may see them as Hans Poelzig
avant-la-lettre. Indeed, the latter’s work, from his early designs in Silesia
to his late buildings in Berlin
, forms the closest parallel to Sosnowski’s work. Mutual influences? unlikely. A comparison with Czech Cubist architecture of those years might also be illuminating.
All this then led to Sosnowski’s magnum opus
of the late 1920s, the Bialystok Church (St. Roch's Church in Białystok). It has sometimes been compared to the work of the pioneer of reinforced concrete, Auguste Perret
; but Sosnowski’s spatial imagination and his judicious use of crystalline Art Déco
motifs go far beyond anything one may find in the work of the French master. In a similar way one may draw again comparisons with German avant-garde design. One is reminded of the revolutionary drawings of the immediate post war years, by Wassili Luckhardt
or Bruno Taut
, but one would look in vain for a realisation of these dreams in Germany, in a manner that is both as daring and as controlled as Sosnowski’s church. Naturally, the medium-sized town of Bialystok
could not afford the vast building of the kind which appeared in the architect’s painted dreams of the same years, but Sosnowski maximised the effect of the church on a hill as a Stadtkrone – which is naturally something that can only be experienced on the spot. The quality of he interior space might be summarised by the way one can see it, almost simultaneously, as a dense forest of piers and as a continuous soaring of openings covered by the lightest kind of ceilings.
From that point one may, finally, look forward to the way in which the mighty Polish Catholic Church took up the task and built, all over the country, its large number of fiercely inventive sanctuaries in the 1970s to 1990s.
Andrzej K. Olszewski, Nowa Forma w Architekturze Polskiej 1900-1925, Wrocław / Warsaw, Polska Akademia Nauk 1967, was the first to point the international links of ‘the new forms in Polish Architecture’.
On the Warsaw Church: Z.Sowińska-Bania, Kościół p.w.Niepokalnego Poczęcia Najświętszej Marii Panny w parafii św. Jakuba w Warszawie, in: Nasza Przeszłość (Kraków), no. 64, 1985, p. 167-198 (short French Summary).
On Sosnowski’s architectural phantasies: Oskar Sosnowski. 'Twórczość plastyczna, Exhibition Catalogue', Muzeum Narodowe Warsaw 1995.
On the Church in Białystok: A.Dolistowski, ‘Kościół św. Rocha w Białymstoku …’ in: Kwartalnik Architektury i Urbanistyki, Vol. 26 1981, part 3-4, pp 427–269.
For Poland’s other major designer of those decades, Jan Koszczyc Witkiewicz see M.Leśniakowska, Jan Koszczyc-Witkiewicz (1881-1958) i budownictwo w jego czasach, Warsaw, Instytut Sztuki Polskiej Akademii Nauk 1998.
S.Muthesius, Art, Architecture and Design in Poland, 966-1990 An Introduction (editions also in Gerrnan, French and Polish), Langewiesche Koenigstein im Taunus 1994.
S.Muthesius, ‘New International Forms or Traditionalist Polish Style? Apects of Warsaw Architecture in the early twentieth century’, in: L.Campbell (ed.) Twentieth Century Architecture and its Histories, Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain Millennial Volume, 2000, pp. 223–250.
D.Crowley, National Style and Nation State in Poland from the Vernacular Revival to the International Style Modernism, Manchester Manchester University Press 1992
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
architect
Architect
An architect is a person trained in the planning, design and oversight of the construction of buildings. To practice architecture means to offer or render services in connection with the design and construction of a building, or group of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the...
and art conservator and restorer
Art conservation and restoration
Conservation-restoration, also referred to as conservation, is a profession devoted to the preservation of cultural heritage for the future. Conservation activities include examination, documentation, treatment, and preventive care...
of monuments during the period between World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
and World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
.
Biography
Sosnowski received his education at a Russian polytechnic in WarsawWarsaw
Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River, roughly from the Baltic Sea and from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population in 2010 was estimated at 1,716,855 residents with a greater metropolitan area of 2,631,902 residents, making Warsaw the 10th most...
, in the Engineering and Construction Faculty Department
Faculty (university)
A faculty is a division within a university comprising one subject area, or a number of related subject areas...
.
In the fall of 1918, the recently renovated building of the Faculty of Architecture at the Warsaw University of Technology
Warsaw University of Technology
The Warsaw University of Technology is one of the leading institutes of technology in Poland, and one of the largest in Central Europe. It employs 2,453 teaching faculty, with 357 professors . The student body numbers 36,156 , mostly full-time. There are 17 faculties covering almost all fields of...
(Warsaw Polytechnic) was occupied by the Bolshevik
Bolshevik
The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists , derived from bol'shinstvo, "majority") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903....
army causing many Polish students enlisted to drive them out, and following this brief interruption, new professors arrived at the Faculty; including Sosnowski, who took the post of the Chair of Polish Architecture Division. In 1919, he became a professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic. In 1922, he initiated the establishment of the Association of Polish City Planners. In 1929, he founded the Department of Architecture of Poland at Warsaw Polytechnic.
Sosnowski's projects were based on traditional historical forms, but he used new materials as reinforced concrete
Reinforced concrete
Reinforced concrete is concrete in which reinforcement bars , reinforcement grids, plates or fibers have been incorporated to strengthen the concrete in tension. It was invented by French gardener Joseph Monier in 1849 and patented in 1867. The term Ferro Concrete refers only to concrete that is...
. He also developed proposals for communities that for the first time applied a new urban form of building around a lake or other feature.
Sosnowski was one of the greatest Polish architects of the period that developed the Professors' Quarter in Warsaw. A unique complex of 21 houses built in the Powiśle
Powisle
Powiśle is a neighbourhood in Warsaw's borough of Śródmieście . It is located between the Vistula river and its escarpment...
district of Warsaw (within the triangular area delineated by the Górnośląska, Myśliwiecka, and Hoene-Wrońskiego streets). They were built between 1923 and 1926 by professors at Warsaw Polytechnic's Faculty of Architecture, with the idea for each architect designs a house for himself. The houses have been preserved in an almost perfect condition and are now a treasured monument of architecture and urban planning.
Sosnowski was quite interested in Jewish culture, and he began a project to inventory synagogue
Synagogue
A synagogue is a Jewish house of prayer. This use of the Greek term synagogue originates in the Septuagint where it sometimes translates the Hebrew word for assembly, kahal...
s in Poland during the 1920s. Of especial importance is the documentation, measured drawings and photographs made in the period between the First and Second World Wars by the Department of Polish Architecture of the Polytechnic of Warsaw, and in particular, the efforts of Professor Sosnowski and other architects, art historians and students which he led, has provided a unique collection of documentation Sosnowski, photographer and art historian Szymon Zajczyk, and Warsaw Polytechnic students documented these wooden structures through architectural drawing
Architectural drawing
An architectural drawing or architect's drawing is a technical drawing of a building that falls within the definition of architecture...
s, replica paintings, and photographs. Recognizing the historical importance and artistic value of this architecture and fearing its impending destruction with the rise of anti-Semitism in Eastern Europe, this team compiled extensive data and produced architectural drawings, color and detail studies and photographs of many synagogues. Much of this project was destroyed during World War II but a substantial amount survived. Today the documentation is all that remain of the wooden synagogues of Poland.
He also prepared an extensive database documenting of other buildings and design elements that has now become part of the work in preserving the European Wooden Churches Heritage. The collection includes drawings and photographs concerning monumental as well as vernacular architecture. It was rescued during the burning of Warsaw by the Nazis and the collection was continued after war, so that it consists now more than 35 thousand drawings – plans, sections, facade
Facade
A facade or façade is generally one exterior side of a building, usually, but not always, the front. The word comes from the French language, literally meaning "frontage" or "face"....
s, and details along with thousands of photographs, and is probably the biggest archive of this kind in Poland.
Work by Sosnowski within the Polish Architecture Division in the Department of Architecture was conducted in the following areas: folk art
Folk art
Folk art encompasses art produced from an indigenous culture or by peasants or other laboring tradespeople. In contrast to fine art, folk art is primarily utilitarian and decorative rather than purely aesthetic....
and rural construction, the history of art, inventory measurements, town planning, painting, and history of fortifications, as well as in studios dealing with interiors and equipment, liturgical (sacral) art, Jewish art, and garden architecture. The amassed collections of measurements, photographs, and slides totaled thousands, and the number of publications exceeded twenty.
Wounded
Sosnowski was wounded by German soldiers in the School of Architecture building's courtyard while trying save the archives containing the surveys of Polish Historic Buildings (the preserved documents provided the information to reconstruct the Warsaw Old TownWarsaw Old Town
Warsaw's Old Town is the oldest historic district of the city. It is bounded by Wybrzeże Gdańskie, along the bank of the Vistula, and by Grodzka, Mostowa and Podwale Streets. It is one of Warsaw's most prominent tourist attractions....
after the war). The Germans then killed or interred 41 professors, including Sosnowski, and the university soon became an important point of resistance during the 1944 uprising against the Germans.
European Influences?
Although some basic information on historical Polish architecture is now more easily available, for the Western connoisseur it is still very largely a terra incognitaTerra incognita
Terra incognita or terra ignota is a term used in cartography for regions that have not been mapped or documented. The expression is believed to be first seen in Ptolemy’s Geography circa 150 CE...
. This seems particularly disappointing when one considers the work of a number of designers at the threshold of 20th century modernism
Modernism
Modernism, in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice. More specifically, the term describes the modernist movement, its set of cultural tendencies and array of associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far-reaching changes to Western society...
. How many lavish books have there been devoted, during the last 50 years, to masters such as Victor Horta
Victor Horta
Victor, Baron Horta was a Belgian architect and designer. John Julius Norwich described him as "undoubtedly the key European Art Nouveau architect." Indeed, Horta is one of the most important names in Art Nouveau architecture; the construction of his Hôtel Tassel in Brussels in 1892-3 means that...
, Charles Voysey
Charles Voysey
Charles Voysey may refer to:* Charles Voysey * Charles Voysey * Charles Cowles-Voysey , architect and son of the above...
or Peter Behrens
Peter Behrens
Peter Behrens was a German architect and designer. He was important for the modernist movement, as several of the movements leading names worked for him when they were young.-Biography:Behrens attended the Christianeum Hamburg from September 1877 until Easter 1882...
? But to find a broader appreciation of Sosnowski’s or Jan Koszczyc-Witkiewicz
Jan Koszczyc-Witkiewicz
Jan Koszczyc Witkiewicz, - Polish architect and conservator of monuments.- External links :...
’s work, let alone adequate illustrations, is still virtually impossible for a non-Polish audience. The reasons for this lacunae are manifold. Firstly, for Western architectural historians, particularly German-language ones, such as Nikolaus Pevsner
Nikolaus Pevsner
Sir Nikolaus Bernhard Leon Pevsner, CBE, FBA was a German-born British scholar of history of art and, especially, of history of architecture...
, who began his writings on the history of Modern architecture and design in the early 1930s, a Polish work worth noting could simply not be imagined. Polish art historians and their publishers have been very slow to produce thorough investigations and adequately illustrated books about those masters, and even what has been brought out during the last few years still appears to be destined entirely for internal consumption. A comprehensive and discerning book on Polish 20th century architecture placed into a general Western context is still badly wanting.
Here the aim is to signal some of the broader issues in the work of Oskar Sosnowski, arguably Poland’s most eminent designer in the period 1910-1940. What makes the task rather difficult is that neither the architect himself, nor Polish architectural critics of the time supplied us with much explanatory discourse.
Sosnowski’s professed aim early on was to create a new ‘old’ national style, as did many of his colleagues in Poland and in most other countries. German writers and architects had adopted a primitivist approach to village architecture from the 1890s and conceivably Sosnowski might have seen the publications advocating a ‘folkart’ style for rural churches by the Berlin architect and publicist Oskar Hossfeld (e.g.in his Stadt und Landkirchen, Berlin Ernst 1905 and later eds.; many of his churches are found in the former Prussian parts of Poland).
The question whether Sosnowski ever arrived at a new (or old)national style cannot be answered here. But in any case, his Warsaw church (Church of the Immaculate Conception (Sw.Jakuba) of 1909 shows an astonishing range in its formal language, from the immense spatial subtlety and complexity of the circular formations of the East end, to the deliberately brutal treatment of the brickwork in the massive tower. The latter points directly to his next phase of numerous fiercely experimental projects of c.1912-1915, which can only be labelled as a primitivist kind of expressionism, and as such we may see them as Hans Poelzig
Hans Poelzig
Hans Poelzig was a German architect, painter and set designer.-Life:Poelzig was born in Berlin in 1869 to the countess Clara Henrietta Maria Poelzig while she was married to George Acland Ames, an Englishman...
avant-la-lettre. Indeed, the latter’s work, from his early designs in Silesia
Silesia
Silesia is a historical region of Central Europe located mostly in Poland, with smaller parts also in the Czech Republic, and Germany.Silesia is rich in mineral and natural resources, and includes several important industrial areas. Silesia's largest city and historical capital is Wrocław...
to his late buildings in Berlin
Berlin
Berlin is the capital city of Germany and is one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.45 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union...
, forms the closest parallel to Sosnowski’s work. Mutual influences? unlikely. A comparison with Czech Cubist architecture of those years might also be illuminating.
Magnum Opus
All this then led to Sosnowski’s magnum opus
Magnum opus
Magnum opus , from the Latin meaning "great work", refers to the largest, and perhaps the best, greatest, most popular, or most renowned achievement of a writer, artist, or composer.-Related terms:Sometimes the term magnum opus is used to refer to simply "a great work" rather than "the...
of the late 1920s, the Bialystok Church (St. Roch's Church in Białystok). It has sometimes been compared to the work of the pioneer of reinforced concrete, Auguste Perret
Auguste Perret
Auguste Perret was a French architect and a world leader and specialist in reinforced concrete construction. In 2005 his post-WWII reconstruction of Le Havre was declared by UNESCO one of the World Heritage Sites....
; but Sosnowski’s spatial imagination and his judicious use of crystalline Art Déco
Art Deco
Art deco , or deco, is an eclectic artistic and design style that began in Paris in the 1920s and flourished internationally throughout the 1930s, into the World War II era. The style influenced all areas of design, including architecture and interior design, industrial design, fashion and...
motifs go far beyond anything one may find in the work of the French master. In a similar way one may draw again comparisons with German avant-garde design. One is reminded of the revolutionary drawings of the immediate post war years, by Wassili Luckhardt
Wassili Luckhardt
Wassili Luckhardt was a German architect. He studied at the Technical University of Berlin and Dresden. Luckhardt and his brother Hans worked closely together for most of their lives...
or Bruno Taut
Bruno Taut
Bruno Julius Florian Taut , was a prolific German architect, urban planner and author active during the Weimar period....
, but one would look in vain for a realisation of these dreams in Germany, in a manner that is both as daring and as controlled as Sosnowski’s church. Naturally, the medium-sized town of Bialystok
Bialystok
Białystok is the largest city in northeastern Poland and the capital of the Podlaskie Voivodeship. Located on the Podlaskie Plain on the banks of the Biała River, Białystok ranks second in terms of population density, eleventh in population, and thirteenth in area, of the cities of Poland...
could not afford the vast building of the kind which appeared in the architect’s painted dreams of the same years, but Sosnowski maximised the effect of the church on a hill as a Stadtkrone – which is naturally something that can only be experienced on the spot. The quality of he interior space might be summarised by the way one can see it, almost simultaneously, as a dense forest of piers and as a continuous soaring of openings covered by the lightest kind of ceilings.
From that point one may, finally, look forward to the way in which the mighty Polish Catholic Church took up the task and built, all over the country, its large number of fiercely inventive sanctuaries in the 1970s to 1990s.
Selected works
- Bałabanów in Lvov (1908)
- Warsaw: Church of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary in the Parish of St. James (St.Jacob / Sw.Jakuba) 1909-1923 Plac Narutowicza
- Parish Church of St. Agnes in Goniądz (1924)
- The expressionist Church of Christ the King and St. Roch in Białystok. It is one of the first modernistModernismModernism, in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice. More specifically, the term describes the modernist movement, its set of cultural tendencies and array of associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far-reaching changes to Western society...
churches in the world. (1927–1939) - Białystok - Starosielce: Church. Stanislaus (1937–1938)
- Lublin: Catholic Church. St. Michael the Archangel at Bronowice(1930–1938)
- Churches in Orłów, Grodno, Grudziądz, Fałków, Chlewiska
- Book - Establishment, structure, and characteristics of the street network in the metropolitan Warsaw region (Powstanie, układ i cechy charakterystyczne sieci ulicznej na obszarze wielkiej Warszawy) (1930), * Construction achievements in Poland (Dzieje budownictwa w Polsce) unfinished work, Volume I, published by PWN in 1964.
Further reading
Maria Brykowska (ed. [in Polish: pod redakcją Marii Brykowskiej]), Oskara Sosnowskiego Świat Architektury. Twórczość i Dzieła [the architectural world of Oskar Sosnowski. Creation and Work], Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Warszawskiej, Warsaw 2004. The authoritative (but by no means exhaustive) source on Sosnowski.Andrzej K. Olszewski, Nowa Forma w Architekturze Polskiej 1900-1925, Wrocław / Warsaw, Polska Akademia Nauk 1967, was the first to point the international links of ‘the new forms in Polish Architecture’.
On the Warsaw Church: Z.Sowińska-Bania, Kościół p.w.Niepokalnego Poczęcia Najświętszej Marii Panny w parafii św. Jakuba w Warszawie, in: Nasza Przeszłość (Kraków), no. 64, 1985, p. 167-198 (short French Summary).
On Sosnowski’s architectural phantasies: Oskar Sosnowski. 'Twórczość plastyczna, Exhibition Catalogue', Muzeum Narodowe Warsaw 1995.
On the Church in Białystok: A.Dolistowski, ‘Kościół św. Rocha w Białymstoku …’ in: Kwartalnik Architektury i Urbanistyki, Vol. 26 1981, part 3-4, pp 427–269.
For Poland’s other major designer of those decades, Jan Koszczyc Witkiewicz see M.Leśniakowska, Jan Koszczyc-Witkiewicz (1881-1958) i budownictwo w jego czasach, Warsaw, Instytut Sztuki Polskiej Akademii Nauk 1998.
S.Muthesius, Art, Architecture and Design in Poland, 966-1990 An Introduction (editions also in Gerrnan, French and Polish), Langewiesche Koenigstein im Taunus 1994.
S.Muthesius, ‘New International Forms or Traditionalist Polish Style? Apects of Warsaw Architecture in the early twentieth century’, in: L.Campbell (ed.) Twentieth Century Architecture and its Histories, Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain Millennial Volume, 2000, pp. 223–250.
D.Crowley, National Style and Nation State in Poland from the Vernacular Revival to the International Style Modernism, Manchester Manchester University Press 1992
External links
- http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jakuba_Church_in_Warsaw Images of the Jakuba Church (Immaculate Conception), Warsaw