Operation Vigilant Resolve
Encyclopedia
As part of the occupation of Iraq, the First Battle of Fallujah, codenamed Operation Vigilant Resolve, was an unsuccessful attempt by the United States Military to capture the city of Fallujah
in April 2004.
The chief catalyst for the operation was the highly-publicized killing and mutilation
of four Blackwater
private military contractors, and the killing of 5 U.S. soldiers in Habbaniyah
a few days earlier.
The American siege of the city polarized public opinion within Iraq, and the failure of the operation to fully realise its tactical objectives would lead to a far more decisive engagement later in the year, the Second Battle of Fallujah.
, and many residents were employed as police, military and intelligence officers by his administration. However, there was little sympathy for him following the collapse of his government, which many residents considered oppressive. The city was one of the most religious and culturally traditional areas in Iraq.
Following the collapse of the Ba'ath infrastructure in early 2003, local residents had elected a town council led by Taha Bidaywi Hamed
, who kept the city from falling into the control of looters
and common criminals. The town council and Hamed were both considered to be nominally pro-American, and their election originally meant that the United States had decided that the city was unlikely to become a hotbed of activity, and didn't require any immediate troop presence. This led to the United States committing few troops to Fallujah from the start.
Although Fallujah had seen sporadic air strikes
by American forces, public opposition was not galvanized until 700 members of the 82nd Airborne Division first entered the city on 23 April 2003, and approximately 150 members of Charlie Company occupied al-Qa'id primary. On 28 April, a crowd of approximately 200 people gathered outside the school past curfew
, demanding that the Americans vacate the building and allow it to re-open as a school. The protesters became increasingly heated, and the deployment of smoke gas canisters failed attempt to disperse the crowd. The protest escalated as gunmen reportedly fired upon U.S. troops from the protesting crowd and U.S. Army
soldiers from the 1ST Battalion of the 325th Airborne Infantry Regiment of the 82nd Airborne Division returned fire, killing 17 people and wounding more than 70 of the protesters. There were no Army or Coalition casualties in the incident. U.S. forces said that the shooting took place over 30–60 seconds, however other sources claim the shooting continued for half an hour
Two days later, a protest at the former Ba'ath party headquarters decrying the American shootings was also fired upon by U.S. troops, this time the U.S. 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment, which resulted in three more deaths. Following both incidents, the US soldiers asserted that they had not fired upon the protesters until they were fired upon first.
The 82nd Airborne troops were replaced by forces from the 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment and 101st Airborne Division
, and on 4 June the 3rd Armoured Cavalry was forced to request an additional 1,500 troops to help quell the growing resistance faced in Fallujah and nearby al-Habaniyya.
In June, U.S. forces began confiscating motorcycles from local residents, claiming that they were being used in hit-and-run
attacks on US troops.
On 30 June, a large explosion occurred in a mosque in which the imam
, Sheikh Laith Khalil and eight other people were killed. While the local population claimed that Americans had fired a missile at the mosque, U.S. forces claimed that it was an accidental detonation by insurgents constructing bombs.
On 12 February 2004, insurgents attacked a convoy carrying General John Abizaid
, commander of US Forces in the Middle East, and the 82nd Airborne's Major General Charles Swannack, firing on the vehicles from nearby rooftops with RPGs, after seemingly infiltrating the Iraqi security forces.
Eleven days later, insurgents diverted Iraqi police to a false emergency on the outskirts of the city, before simultaneously attacking three police stations, the mayor's office and a civil defence base. At least 17 police officers were killed, and as many as 87 prisoners released.
During this time, the 82nd Airborne were conducting regular "lightning raids" inside the city, where Humvee convoys would destroy road barriers and curbs that could hide IEDs
, and oversee searches of homes and schools, which frequently saw property damage, and led to shoot-outs with local residents.
In March 2004, Swannack transferred authority of the Al-Anbar province to the I Marine Expeditionary Force commanded by Lt. General Conway
.
By early March 2004, the city began to fall under the increasing influence of guerrilla factions. The rising violence against the American presence resulted in the complete withdrawal of troops from the city, with only occasional incursions trying to gain and reinforce a "foothold in the city" being attempted. This was coupled with one or two patrols around the outer limits of FOB Volturno
, the former site of Qusay
and Uday Hussein
's palace.
in Fallujah
ambushed a convoy containing four American private military contractors from Blackwater USA
who were conducting delivery for food caterers ESS
.
The four armed contractors, Scott Helvenston
, Jerko Zovko, Wesley Batalona and Michael Teague, were killed by machine gun fire and a grenade thrown through a window of their SUVs. A mob then set their bodies ablaze, and their corpses were dragged through the streets before being hung over a bridge crossing the Euphrates
.
Photos of the event were released to news agencies
worldwide, causing a great deal of indignation and moral outrage
in the United States, and prompting the announcement of an upcoming "pacification" of the city.
The intended Marine Corps
strategy of foot patrols
, less aggressive raids, humanitarian aid
, and close cooperation with local leaders was suspended on orders to mount a military operation to clear guerrillas from Fallujah.
On 1 April, Brigadier General Mark Kimmitt
, deputy director of operations for the US military in Iraq, promised an "overwhelming" response to the Blackwater deaths, stating "We will pacify that city,"
On 3 April, the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force received a written command from the Joint Task Force
, ordering offensive operations against Fallujah. This order went against the wishes of the Marine Commanders on the ground who wanted to conduct surgical strikes and raids against those suspected of involvement in the Blackwater deaths.
On the night of 4 April, the US forces launched a major assault in an attempt to "re-establish security in Fallujah" by encircling it with around 2000 troops. At least four homes were hit in aerial strikes
, and there was sporadic gunfire throughout the night.
By the morning of 5 April, headed by the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force, American units had surrounded the city with an aim towards retaking it. American troops blockaded roads leading into the city with Humvees and concertina wire
. They also took over a local radio station and handed out leaflets urging residents to remain inside their homes and help American forces identify insurgents and any Fallujans who were involved in the Blackwater deaths.
It was estimated that there were 12–24 separate "hardcore" groups of insurgents, armed with RPGs, machine guns, mortars
and anti-aircraft weapons, some of it supplied by the Iraqi Police
. By 6 April, military sources said that "Marines may not attempt to control the center of the town.".
In the opening days, it was reported that up to a third of the civilian population had fled the city.
The siege forced the closing of Fallujah's two main hospitals, Fallujah General Hospital and the Jordanian Hospital, which were re-opened during the ceasefire
on 9 April.
The resulting engagements set off widespread fighting throughout Central Iraq and along the Lower Euphrates, with various elements of the Iraqi insurgency
taking advantage of the situation and commencing simultaneous operations against the Coalition forces. This period marked the emergence of the Mahdi Army
, the militia of Shiite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr
, as a major armed faction which, at that time, actively participated in anti-Coalition operations. The happenings were also punctuated by a surge of a Sunni rebellion in the city of Ramadi
. During this period, a number of foreigners were captured by insurgent groups. Some were killed outright, whilst others were held as hostages in an attempt to barter for political or military concessions. Some elements of the Iraqi police and Iraqi Civil Defense Corps
also turned on the Coalition forces or simply abandoned their posts.
The rebels in Fallujah held on as the Americans attempted to tighten their hold on the city. Air bombardments
rained on insurgent positions throughout the city, Lockheed AC-130
gunship
s attacked targets with their Gatling guns
and howitzers
a number of times. Scout Sniper
s became a core element of the Marines' strategy, averaging 31 kills apiece in the battle, while PSYOP Tactical Psychological Operations Teams from Tactical Psychological Operations Detachment 910 tried to lure Iraqis out into the open for the Scout Snipers by reading scripts that were aimed at angering insurgent fighters and by blaring ACDC along with Metallica
and other rock music over their loud speakers.
After three days of fighting, it was estimated that the United States had gained control over 25% of the city, although it was suggested that insurgents had lost a number of key defensive positions.
Because the U.S. attacks were taking a toll on civilians as well as the insurgents, the Coalition faced growing criticism from within the Iraqi Governing Council
, where Adnan Pachachi
said, "these operations by the Americans are unacceptable and illegal."
Al-Jazeera reporter Ahmed Mansur, and cameraman Laith Mushtaq, the only two non-embedded journalists
covering the conflict since 3 April, reported that an unknown source stated that United States insisted that the reporters be withdrawn from the city, as a pre-condition to the ceasefire.
At noon on 9 April, under pressure from the Governing Council, Paul Bremer announced that the U.S. forces would be unilaterally holding a ceasefire
, stating that they wanted to facilitate negotiations between the Iraqi Governing Council
, insurgents and city spokespersons, and to allow government supplies to be delivered to residents
As a consequence, much-needed humanitarian relief which had been held up by the fighting and blockade finally managed to enter the city, notably a major convoy organized by private citizens, businessmen and clerics from Baghdad as a joint Shi'a-Sunni effort. Some US forces used this time to occupy and scavenge abandoned houses and convert them into de facto bunkers, while a number of insurgents did the same.
At this point, it was estimated that 600 Iraqis had been killed, at least half of whom were non-combatants.
Although hundreds of insurgents had been killed in the assault, the city remained firmly in their control. U.S. forces had by then only managed to gain a foothold in the industrial district to the south of the city. The end of major operations for the time being led to negotiations between various Iraqi elements and the Coalition forces, punctuated by occasional firefights.
On 13 April, U.S. Marines fell under attack from insurgents located within a mosque. An airstrike destroyed the mosque, prompting a public outcry.
On 15 April, an American F-16 Fighting Falcon
dropped a 2000 pounds (907.2 kg) JDAM
GPS guided bomb over the northern district of Fallujah.
On 19 April, the ceasefire seemed to be consolidated with a plan to reintroduce joint US/Iraqi patrols in the city. Over time this arrangement broke down and the city remained a major center of opposition to the US appointed Iraqi Interim Government. Additionally, the composition of the armed groups in Fallujah changed during the following months, shifting from domination by secular, nationalist and ex-Ba'athist groups towards a marked influence of warlords with ties to organized crime and groups following a radical Wahhabi stance.
On 27 April, insurgents attacked US defensive positions, forcing Americans to call in air support
.
On 1 May 2004, the United States withdrew from Fallujah, as Lieutenant General James Conway announced that he had unilaterally decided to turn over any remaining operations to the newly-formed Fallujah Brigade, which would be armed with US weapons and equipment under the command of former Ba'athist Army General Jasim Mohammed Saleh
. Several days later, when it became clear that Saleh had been involved in military actions against Shi'ites under Saddam Hussein, US forces announced that Muhammed Latif
would instead lead the brigade. Nevertheless, the group dissolved and had turned over all the US weapons to the insurgency by September, prompting the necessity of the Second Battle of Fallujah in November, which successfully occupied the city.
During the interim between the two battles, US forces maintained their presence at Camp Baharia
, only a few miles outside the city limits.
The largest combat mission since the declaration of the end of "major hostilities", the Battle of Fallujah marked a turning point in public perception of the on-going conflict. This was because insurgents, rather than Saddam loyalists, were seen as the chief opponents of US forces. It was also judged by both military and civilian agencies, that reliance upon US-funded regional militia
s, such as the failed Fallujah Brigade, could prove disastrous. American strategists were mercurial about the outcome of the battle with one writing "the handwriting is on the wall. The Battle of Fallujah was not a defeat—but we cannot afford many more victories like it."
The battle also pushed Abu Musab al-Zarqawi
into the public spotlight as the best-known commander of anti-Coalition forces in Iraq, and brought public attention to the concept of a Sunni Triangle which might prove to be un-winnable for US forces.
27 American servicemen were killed in and around Fallujah during the battle, as well as hundreds of Iraqis, both civilians and insurgents. Many of the Iraqis killed were buried inside the city's former football stadium, which became known as the Martyrs' Cemetery
.
Widespread media and independent reports that the United States had used incendiary device
s such as white phosphorus and napalm
in the First and Second Battle of Fallujah were rebuffed by US sources, who admitted that Mark 77 bomb
s had been used in the war the year prior, but no similar weapons had been employed in Fallujah. Several days later, this was contradicted by the admission that white phosphorus had been used in Fallujah, but only for "illumination", "screening" and "psychological" purposes.
According to the British Broadcasting Corporation, bloggers found an article published in the March/April 2005 edition of the US Army's Field Artillery magazine ("The Fight for Fallujah"), by artillery soldiers who had served in the battle, that described the use of white phosphorus for its lethal effects when high explosives weren't effective. The BBC suggested, after consulting other reports, that artillery units routinely mixed White Phosphorus and High Explosive munitions in Fallujah, routinely failing to abide by the USA's obligations under international law not to do so.
In the article, the artillery soldiers wrote:
Critics of the battle have contended that it contravened the Fourth Geneva Convention
via the use of unguided munitions targeting civilian population centres.
Fallujah
Fallujah is a city in the Iraqi province of Al Anbar, located roughly west of Baghdad on the Euphrates. Fallujah dates from Babylonian times and was host to important Jewish academies for many centuries....
in April 2004.
The chief catalyst for the operation was the highly-publicized killing and mutilation
31 March 2004 Fallujah ambush
On March 31, 2004 an ambush saw Iraqi insurgents in Fallujah attack a convoy containing four United States contractors from the private security company Blackwater USA, who were conducting delivery for food caterers ESS....
of four Blackwater
Blackwater USA
Xe Services LLC, better known by its former names, Blackwater USA and Blackwater Worldwide, is a private military company founded in 1997 by Erik Prince and Al Clark.. Xe is currently the largest of the U.S. State Department's three private security contractors...
private military contractors, and the killing of 5 U.S. soldiers in Habbaniyah
Habbaniyah
Al Habbaniyah or Habbaniya is a city in Al-Anbar Province, in central Iraq.-References:...
a few days earlier.
The American siege of the city polarized public opinion within Iraq, and the failure of the operation to fully realise its tactical objectives would lead to a far more decisive engagement later in the year, the Second Battle of Fallujah.
Events before the battle
Fallujah had generally benefited economically under Saddam HusseinSaddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti was the fifth President of Iraq, serving in this capacity from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003...
, and many residents were employed as police, military and intelligence officers by his administration. However, there was little sympathy for him following the collapse of his government, which many residents considered oppressive. The city was one of the most religious and culturally traditional areas in Iraq.
Following the collapse of the Ba'ath infrastructure in early 2003, local residents had elected a town council led by Taha Bidaywi Hamed
Taha Bidaywi Hamed
Taha Bidaywi Hamed is an Iraqi politician. He was elected by local tribal leaders to lead the town council of Fallujah on April 30, 2003. The position had been vacant after the previous administrators - loyal to Saddam Hussein's regime - fled to avoid being caught up in the 2003 invasion of...
, who kept the city from falling into the control of looters
Looting
Looting —also referred to as sacking, plundering, despoiling, despoliation, and pillaging—is the indiscriminate taking of goods by force as part of a military or political victory, or during a catastrophe, such as during war, natural disaster, or rioting...
and common criminals. The town council and Hamed were both considered to be nominally pro-American, and their election originally meant that the United States had decided that the city was unlikely to become a hotbed of activity, and didn't require any immediate troop presence. This led to the United States committing few troops to Fallujah from the start.
Although Fallujah had seen sporadic air strikes
Air Support
Air Support is a 1992 computer game for the Amiga and Atari ST. It is a top-down strategy game, with a first-person mode available for special missions. The game takes place during a retrofuturistic 21st century where all wars are fought in virtual reality. The game was given mostly positive...
by American forces, public opposition was not galvanized until 700 members of the 82nd Airborne Division first entered the city on 23 April 2003, and approximately 150 members of Charlie Company occupied al-Qa'id primary. On 28 April, a crowd of approximately 200 people gathered outside the school past curfew
Curfew
A curfew is an order specifying a time after which certain regulations apply. Examples:# An order by a government for certain persons to return home daily before a certain time...
, demanding that the Americans vacate the building and allow it to re-open as a school. The protesters became increasingly heated, and the deployment of smoke gas canisters failed attempt to disperse the crowd. The protest escalated as gunmen reportedly fired upon U.S. troops from the protesting crowd and U.S. Army
United States Army
The United States Army is the main branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military, and is one of seven U.S. uniformed services...
soldiers from the 1ST Battalion of the 325th Airborne Infantry Regiment of the 82nd Airborne Division returned fire, killing 17 people and wounding more than 70 of the protesters. There were no Army or Coalition casualties in the incident. U.S. forces said that the shooting took place over 30–60 seconds, however other sources claim the shooting continued for half an hour
Two days later, a protest at the former Ba'ath party headquarters decrying the American shootings was also fired upon by U.S. troops, this time the U.S. 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment, which resulted in three more deaths. Following both incidents, the US soldiers asserted that they had not fired upon the protesters until they were fired upon first.
The 82nd Airborne troops were replaced by forces from the 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment and 101st Airborne Division
101st Airborne Division (United States)
The 101st Airborne Division—the "Screaming Eagles"—is a U.S. Army modular light infantry division trained for air assault operations. During World War II, it was renowned for its role in Operation Overlord, the D-Day landings on 6 June 1944, in Normandy, France, Operation Market Garden, the...
, and on 4 June the 3rd Armoured Cavalry was forced to request an additional 1,500 troops to help quell the growing resistance faced in Fallujah and nearby al-Habaniyya.
Hit-and-run tactics
Hit-and-run tactics is a tactical doctrine where the purpose of the combat involved is not to seize control of territory, but to inflict damage on a target and immediately exit the area to avoid the enemy's defense and/or retaliation.-History:...
attacks on US troops.
On 30 June, a large explosion occurred in a mosque in which the imam
Imam
An imam is an Islamic leadership position, often the worship leader of a mosque and the Muslim community. Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads Islamic worship services. More often, the community turns to the mosque imam if they have a religious question...
, Sheikh Laith Khalil and eight other people were killed. While the local population claimed that Americans had fired a missile at the mosque, U.S. forces claimed that it was an accidental detonation by insurgents constructing bombs.
On 12 February 2004, insurgents attacked a convoy carrying General John Abizaid
John Abizaid
John Philip Abizaid, AO is a retired General in the United States Army and former Commander of the United States Central Command , overseeing American military operations in a 27-country region, from the Horn of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, to South and Central Asia, covering much of the Middle...
, commander of US Forces in the Middle East, and the 82nd Airborne's Major General Charles Swannack, firing on the vehicles from nearby rooftops with RPGs, after seemingly infiltrating the Iraqi security forces.
Eleven days later, insurgents diverted Iraqi police to a false emergency on the outskirts of the city, before simultaneously attacking three police stations, the mayor's office and a civil defence base. At least 17 police officers were killed, and as many as 87 prisoners released.
During this time, the 82nd Airborne were conducting regular "lightning raids" inside the city, where Humvee convoys would destroy road barriers and curbs that could hide IEDs
Improvised explosive device
An improvised explosive device , also known as a roadside bomb, is a homemade bomb constructed and deployed in ways other than in conventional military action...
, and oversee searches of homes and schools, which frequently saw property damage, and led to shoot-outs with local residents.
In March 2004, Swannack transferred authority of the Al-Anbar province to the I Marine Expeditionary Force commanded by Lt. General Conway
James T. Conway
James Terry Conway is a retired United States Marine Corps four-star general who was the 34th Commandant of the Marine Corps...
.
By early March 2004, the city began to fall under the increasing influence of guerrilla factions. The rising violence against the American presence resulted in the complete withdrawal of troops from the city, with only occasional incursions trying to gain and reinforce a "foothold in the city" being attempted. This was coupled with one or two patrols around the outer limits of FOB Volturno
Dreamland (Fallujah, Iraq)
Once a Baathist resort in Iraq, Camp Baharia was the smaller of two major U.S. bases maintained just outside Fallujah. The facility, specifically named after the Marine Corps, uses an Arabic word for the Marine Corps, 'mushaat al-baharia,' which translates into 'walkers of the navy' or naval infantry...
, the former site of Qusay
Qusay Hussein
Qusay Saddam Hussein al-Tikriti was the second son of Iraqi President Saddam Hussein. He was appointed as his father's heir apparent in 2000.- Family :...
and Uday Hussein
Uday Hussein
Uday Saddam Hussein al-Tikriti , was the eldest son of Saddam Hussein from his first wife, Sajida Talfah. He was the brother of Qusay Hussein. Uday was for several years seen as the heir apparent of his father; however, Uday lost his place in the line of succession due to his erratic behavior and...
's palace.
Blackwater deaths
On 31 March 2004 – Iraqi insurgentsIraqi insurgency
The Iraqi Resistance is composed of a diverse mix of militias, foreign fighters, all-Iraqi units or mixtures opposing the United States-led multinational force in Iraq and the post-2003 Iraqi government...
in Fallujah
Fallujah
Fallujah is a city in the Iraqi province of Al Anbar, located roughly west of Baghdad on the Euphrates. Fallujah dates from Babylonian times and was host to important Jewish academies for many centuries....
ambushed a convoy containing four American private military contractors from Blackwater USA
Blackwater USA
Xe Services LLC, better known by its former names, Blackwater USA and Blackwater Worldwide, is a private military company founded in 1997 by Erik Prince and Al Clark.. Xe is currently the largest of the U.S. State Department's three private security contractors...
who were conducting delivery for food caterers ESS
Eurest Support Services
Eurest Support Services is a subsidiary of the catering company, Compass Group PLC specializing in harsh-environment large-scale food service and facilities management...
.
The four armed contractors, Scott Helvenston
Scott Helvenston
Stephen "Scott" Helvenston was a former United States Navy SEAL, and worked as a security contractor for Blackwater Security when he was killed in the 31 March 2004 Fallujah ambush within days of arriving in Iraq....
, Jerko Zovko, Wesley Batalona and Michael Teague, were killed by machine gun fire and a grenade thrown through a window of their SUVs. A mob then set their bodies ablaze, and their corpses were dragged through the streets before being hung over a bridge crossing the Euphrates
Euphrates
The Euphrates is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia...
.
Photos of the event were released to news agencies
News agency
A news agency is an organization of journalists established to supply news reports to news organizations: newspapers, magazines, and radio and television broadcasters. Such an agency may also be referred to as a wire service, newswire or news service.-History:The oldest news agency is Agence...
worldwide, causing a great deal of indignation and moral outrage
Moral panic
A moral panic is the intensity of feeling expressed in a population about an issue that appears to threaten the social order. According to Stanley Cohen, author of Folk Devils and Moral Panics and credited creator of the term, a moral panic occurs when "[a] condition, episode, person or group of...
in the United States, and prompting the announcement of an upcoming "pacification" of the city.
The intended Marine Corps
United States Marine Corps
The United States Marine Corps is a branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for providing power projection from the sea, using the mobility of the United States Navy to deliver combined-arms task forces rapidly. It is one of seven uniformed services of the United States...
strategy of foot patrols
Patrol
A patrol is commonly a group of personnel, such as police officers or soldiers, that are assigned to monitor a specific geographic area.- Military :...
, less aggressive raids, humanitarian aid
Humanitarian aid
Humanitarian aid is material or logistical assistance provided for humanitarian purposes, typically in response to humanitarian crises including natural disaster and man-made disaster. The primary objective of humanitarian aid is to save lives, alleviate suffering, and maintain human dignity...
, and close cooperation with local leaders was suspended on orders to mount a military operation to clear guerrillas from Fallujah.
The campaign
Mark Kimmitt
Mark Traecey Patrick Kimmitt was the 16th Assistant Secretary of State for Political-Military Affairs, serving under George W. Bush from August 2008 to January 2009. Prior to joining the State Department, he was a Brigadier General in the United States Army, and served as the Deputy Assistant...
, deputy director of operations for the US military in Iraq, promised an "overwhelming" response to the Blackwater deaths, stating "We will pacify that city,"
On 3 April, the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force received a written command from the Joint Task Force
Joint Task Force
Joint Task Force is a PC real-time tactics game where players command military forces in combat situations based on modern day conflicts.The game includes officially licensed vehicles and weapons systems from major defense contractors including Boeing, Lockheed Martin, General Dynamics, Northrop...
, ordering offensive operations against Fallujah. This order went against the wishes of the Marine Commanders on the ground who wanted to conduct surgical strikes and raids against those suspected of involvement in the Blackwater deaths.
On the night of 4 April, the US forces launched a major assault in an attempt to "re-establish security in Fallujah" by encircling it with around 2000 troops. At least four homes were hit in aerial strikes
Close air support
In military tactics, close air support is defined as air action by fixed or rotary winged aircraft against hostile targets that are close to friendly forces, and which requires detailed integration of each air mission with fire and movement of these forces.The determining factor for CAS is...
, and there was sporadic gunfire throughout the night.
By the morning of 5 April, headed by the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force, American units had surrounded the city with an aim towards retaking it. American troops blockaded roads leading into the city with Humvees and concertina wire
Concertina wire
Concertina wire or Dannert Wire is a type of barbed wire or razor wire that is formed in large coils which can be expanded like a concertina. In conjunction with plain barbed wire and steel pickets, it is used to form military wire obstacles....
. They also took over a local radio station and handed out leaflets urging residents to remain inside their homes and help American forces identify insurgents and any Fallujans who were involved in the Blackwater deaths.
It was estimated that there were 12–24 separate "hardcore" groups of insurgents, armed with RPGs, machine guns, mortars
Mortar (weapon)
A mortar is an indirect fire weapon that fires explosive projectiles known as bombs at low velocities, short ranges, and high-arcing ballistic trajectories. It is typically muzzle-loading and has a barrel length less than 15 times its caliber....
and anti-aircraft weapons, some of it supplied by the Iraqi Police
Iraqi Police
The Iraqi Police Service are the uniformed Territorial police force responsible for the enforcement of civil law within Iraq.The current organisation, structure and recruitment practice was guided by the Coalition Provisional Authority following the 2003 invasion of Iraq...
. By 6 April, military sources said that "Marines may not attempt to control the center of the town.".
In the opening days, it was reported that up to a third of the civilian population had fled the city.
The siege forced the closing of Fallujah's two main hospitals, Fallujah General Hospital and the Jordanian Hospital, which were re-opened during the ceasefire
Ceasefire
A ceasefire is a temporary stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions. Ceasefires may be declared as part of a formal treaty, but they have also been called as part of an informal understanding between opposing forces...
on 9 April.
The resulting engagements set off widespread fighting throughout Central Iraq and along the Lower Euphrates, with various elements of the Iraqi insurgency
Iraqi insurgency
The Iraqi Resistance is composed of a diverse mix of militias, foreign fighters, all-Iraqi units or mixtures opposing the United States-led multinational force in Iraq and the post-2003 Iraqi government...
taking advantage of the situation and commencing simultaneous operations against the Coalition forces. This period marked the emergence of the Mahdi Army
Mahdi Army
The Mahdi Army, also known as the Mahdi Militia or Jaish al-Mahdi , was an Iraqi paramilitary force created by the Iraqi Shia cleric Muqtada al-Sadr in June 2003....
, the militia of Shiite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr
Muqtada al-Sadr
Sayyid Muqtadā al-Ṣadr is an Iraqi Islamic political leader.Along with Ali al-Sistani and Ammar al-Hakim of the Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq, Sadr is one of the most influential religious and political figures in the country not holding any official title in the Iraqi government.-Titles:He is...
, as a major armed faction which, at that time, actively participated in anti-Coalition operations. The happenings were also punctuated by a surge of a Sunni rebellion in the city of Ramadi
Ramadi
Ramadi is a city in central Iraq, about west of Baghdad. It is the capital of Al Anbar Governorate.-History:Ramadi is located in a fertile, irrigated, alluvial plain.The Ottoman Empire founded Ramadi in 1869...
. During this period, a number of foreigners were captured by insurgent groups. Some were killed outright, whilst others were held as hostages in an attempt to barter for political or military concessions. Some elements of the Iraqi police and Iraqi Civil Defense Corps
Iraqi Civil Defense Corps
Iraqi Civil Defense Corps was a Iraqi armed formation created by Coalition Provisional Authority which existed in 2003-2004. The ICDC was controlled by Coalition forces....
also turned on the Coalition forces or simply abandoned their posts.
The rebels in Fallujah held on as the Americans attempted to tighten their hold on the city. Air bombardments
Close air support
In military tactics, close air support is defined as air action by fixed or rotary winged aircraft against hostile targets that are close to friendly forces, and which requires detailed integration of each air mission with fire and movement of these forces.The determining factor for CAS is...
rained on insurgent positions throughout the city, Lockheed AC-130
Lockheed AC-130
The Lockheed AC-130 gunship is a heavily-armed ground-attack aircraft variant of the C-130 Hercules transport plane. The basic airframe is manufactured by Lockheed, while Boeing is responsible for the conversion into a gunship and for aircraft support...
gunship
Gunship
The term "gunship" is used in several contexts, all sharing the general idea of a light craft armed with heavy guns.-In Navy:In the Navy, the term originally appeared in the mid-19th century as a less-common synonym for gunboat.-In military aviation:...
s attacked targets with their Gatling guns
GAU-12 Equalizer
The General Dynamics GAU-12/U Equalizer is a five-barrel 25 mm Gatling gun-style rotary cannon. The GAU-12/U is used by the United States, Italy and Spain, which mount the weapon in their fighter jets such as the AV-8B Harrier II, airborne gunships such as the Lockheed AC-130, and land-based...
and howitzers
M102 howitzer
First introduced during the Vietnam War, the M102 was the light-towed 105 mm howitzer used by the United States Army in the Vietnam War, the First Gulf War, and most recently in the Iraq War.- An Air Mobile Howitzer for the Vietnam War :...
a number of times. Scout Sniper
Scout Sniper
Scout Sniper is a secondary MOS designator of U.S. Marine Corps infantrymen and reconnaissance Marines that have successfully graduated from a USMC Scout Sniper School. Scout Snipers provide close reconnaissance and surveillance to the infantry battalion...
s became a core element of the Marines' strategy, averaging 31 kills apiece in the battle, while PSYOP Tactical Psychological Operations Teams from Tactical Psychological Operations Detachment 910 tried to lure Iraqis out into the open for the Scout Snipers by reading scripts that were aimed at angering insurgent fighters and by blaring ACDC along with Metallica
Metallica
Metallica is an American heavy metal band from Los Angeles, California. Formed in 1981 when James Hetfield responded to an advertisement that drummer Lars Ulrich had posted in a local newspaper. The current line-up features long-time lead guitarist Kirk Hammett and bassist Robert Trujillo ...
and other rock music over their loud speakers.
After three days of fighting, it was estimated that the United States had gained control over 25% of the city, although it was suggested that insurgents had lost a number of key defensive positions.
Because the U.S. attacks were taking a toll on civilians as well as the insurgents, the Coalition faced growing criticism from within the Iraqi Governing Council
Iraqi Governing Council
The Iraqi Governing Council was the provisional government of Iraq from July 13, 2003 to June 1, 2004. It was established by and served under the United States-led Coalition Provisional Authority...
, where Adnan Pachachi
Adnan Pachachi
Adnan al-Pachachi or Adnan Muzahim Amin al-Pachachi is a veteran Iraqi politician and diplomat. Pachachi was Iraq's Permanent Representative to the United Nations from 1959 to 1965 and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Iraq from 1965 to 1967; he again served as Permanent Representative to the UN...
said, "these operations by the Americans are unacceptable and illegal."
Al-Jazeera reporter Ahmed Mansur, and cameraman Laith Mushtaq, the only two non-embedded journalists
Embedded journalist
Embedded journalism refers to news reporters being attached to military units involved in armed conflicts. While the term could be applied to many historical interactions between journalists and military personnel, it first came to be used in the media coverage of the 2003 invasion of Iraq...
covering the conflict since 3 April, reported that an unknown source stated that United States insisted that the reporters be withdrawn from the city, as a pre-condition to the ceasefire.
At noon on 9 April, under pressure from the Governing Council, Paul Bremer announced that the U.S. forces would be unilaterally holding a ceasefire
Ceasefire
A ceasefire is a temporary stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions. Ceasefires may be declared as part of a formal treaty, but they have also been called as part of an informal understanding between opposing forces...
, stating that they wanted to facilitate negotiations between the Iraqi Governing Council
Iraqi Governing Council
The Iraqi Governing Council was the provisional government of Iraq from July 13, 2003 to June 1, 2004. It was established by and served under the United States-led Coalition Provisional Authority...
, insurgents and city spokespersons, and to allow government supplies to be delivered to residents
As a consequence, much-needed humanitarian relief which had been held up by the fighting and blockade finally managed to enter the city, notably a major convoy organized by private citizens, businessmen and clerics from Baghdad as a joint Shi'a-Sunni effort. Some US forces used this time to occupy and scavenge abandoned houses and convert them into de facto bunkers, while a number of insurgents did the same.
At this point, it was estimated that 600 Iraqis had been killed, at least half of whom were non-combatants.
Although hundreds of insurgents had been killed in the assault, the city remained firmly in their control. U.S. forces had by then only managed to gain a foothold in the industrial district to the south of the city. The end of major operations for the time being led to negotiations between various Iraqi elements and the Coalition forces, punctuated by occasional firefights.
On 13 April, U.S. Marines fell under attack from insurgents located within a mosque. An airstrike destroyed the mosque, prompting a public outcry.
On 15 April, an American F-16 Fighting Falcon
F-16 Fighting Falcon
The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a multirole jet fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force . Designed as an air superiority day fighter, it evolved into a successful all-weather multirole aircraft. Over 4,400 aircraft have been built since...
dropped a 2000 pounds (907.2 kg) JDAM
Joint Direct Attack Munition
The Joint Direct Attack Munition is a guidance kit that converts unguided bombs, or "dumb bombs" into all-weather "smart" munitions. JDAM-equipped bombs are guided by an integrated inertial guidance system coupled to a Global Positioning System receiver, giving them a published range of up to...
GPS guided bomb over the northern district of Fallujah.
On 19 April, the ceasefire seemed to be consolidated with a plan to reintroduce joint US/Iraqi patrols in the city. Over time this arrangement broke down and the city remained a major center of opposition to the US appointed Iraqi Interim Government. Additionally, the composition of the armed groups in Fallujah changed during the following months, shifting from domination by secular, nationalist and ex-Ba'athist groups towards a marked influence of warlords with ties to organized crime and groups following a radical Wahhabi stance.
On 27 April, insurgents attacked US defensive positions, forcing Americans to call in air support
Air Support
Air Support is a 1992 computer game for the Amiga and Atari ST. It is a top-down strategy game, with a first-person mode available for special missions. The game takes place during a retrofuturistic 21st century where all wars are fought in virtual reality. The game was given mostly positive...
.
On 1 May 2004, the United States withdrew from Fallujah, as Lieutenant General James Conway announced that he had unilaterally decided to turn over any remaining operations to the newly-formed Fallujah Brigade, which would be armed with US weapons and equipment under the command of former Ba'athist Army General Jasim Mohammed Saleh
Jasim Mohammed Saleh
General Jasim Mohammed Saleh was an Iraqi level-2 Baathist who commanded the Iraqi Army under Saddam Hussein. After US forces failed to capture Fallujah, they turned control of the city over to Saleh, and his own private militia in the hope that he could restore order to the city.A former...
. Several days later, when it became clear that Saleh had been involved in military actions against Shi'ites under Saddam Hussein, US forces announced that Muhammed Latif
Muhammed Latif
Muhammed Latif is an Iraqi major general, and former member of the Baath Party. The city of Fallujah was handed over to Muhammed Latif, replacing the earlier U.S...
would instead lead the brigade. Nevertheless, the group dissolved and had turned over all the US weapons to the insurgency by September, prompting the necessity of the Second Battle of Fallujah in November, which successfully occupied the city.
During the interim between the two battles, US forces maintained their presence at Camp Baharia
Dreamland (Fallujah, Iraq)
Once a Baathist resort in Iraq, Camp Baharia was the smaller of two major U.S. bases maintained just outside Fallujah. The facility, specifically named after the Marine Corps, uses an Arabic word for the Marine Corps, 'mushaat al-baharia,' which translates into 'walkers of the navy' or naval infantry...
, only a few miles outside the city limits.
Aftermath and effects
Militia
The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
s, such as the failed Fallujah Brigade, could prove disastrous. American strategists were mercurial about the outcome of the battle with one writing "the handwriting is on the wall. The Battle of Fallujah was not a defeat—but we cannot afford many more victories like it."
The battle also pushed Abu Musab al-Zarqawi
Abu Musab al-Zarqawi
Abu Musab al-Zarqawi ; October 30, 1966 – June 7, 2006), born Ahmad Fadeel al-Nazal al-Khalayleh was a Jordanian militant Islamist who ran a paramilitary training camp in Afghanistan...
into the public spotlight as the best-known commander of anti-Coalition forces in Iraq, and brought public attention to the concept of a Sunni Triangle which might prove to be un-winnable for US forces.
27 American servicemen were killed in and around Fallujah during the battle, as well as hundreds of Iraqis, both civilians and insurgents. Many of the Iraqis killed were buried inside the city's former football stadium, which became known as the Martyrs' Cemetery
Martyrs' Cemetery
The Martyrs' Cemetery is the chief burial site of Iraqis killed during the First Battle of Fallujah, both insurgents and civilians. It was formerly the soccer field of the Falluja Sports Club, and was converted into a cemetery after US troops blockaded attempts to reach the city's main cemetery.A...
.
Widespread media and independent reports that the United States had used incendiary device
Incendiary device
Incendiary weapons, incendiary devices or incendiary bombs are bombs designed to start fires or destroy sensitive equipment using materials such as napalm, thermite, chlorine trifluoride, or white phosphorus....
s such as white phosphorus and napalm
Napalm
Napalm is a thickening/gelling agent generally mixed with gasoline or a similar fuel for use in an incendiary device, primarily as an anti-personnel weapon...
in the First and Second Battle of Fallujah were rebuffed by US sources, who admitted that Mark 77 bomb
Mark 77 bomb
The Mark 77 bomb is a US 750-lb air-dropped incendiary bomb carrying of a fuel gel mix which is the direct successor to napalm.The MK-77 is the primary incendiary weapon currently in use by the United States military...
s had been used in the war the year prior, but no similar weapons had been employed in Fallujah. Several days later, this was contradicted by the admission that white phosphorus had been used in Fallujah, but only for "illumination", "screening" and "psychological" purposes.
According to the British Broadcasting Corporation, bloggers found an article published in the March/April 2005 edition of the US Army's Field Artillery magazine ("The Fight for Fallujah"), by artillery soldiers who had served in the battle, that described the use of white phosphorus for its lethal effects when high explosives weren't effective. The BBC suggested, after consulting other reports, that artillery units routinely mixed White Phosphorus and High Explosive munitions in Fallujah, routinely failing to abide by the USA's obligations under international law not to do so.
In the article, the artillery soldiers wrote:
Critics of the battle have contended that it contravened the Fourth Geneva Convention
Fourth Geneva Convention
The Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, commonly referred to as the Fourth Geneva Convention and abbreviated as GCIV, is one of the four treaties of the Geneva Conventions. It was adopted in August 1949, and defines humanitarian protections for civilians...
via the use of unguided munitions targeting civilian population centres.
Participating units
- 1st Marine Division
- 1st Battalion 5th Marines1st Battalion 5th Marines1st Battalion, 5th Marines is an infantry battalion in the United States Marine Corps based out of Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, California consisting of approximately 800 Marines and sailors. Nicknamed Geronimo, it falls under the command of the 5th Marine Regiment and the 1st Marine Division...
- 2nd Battalion 1st Marines2nd Battalion 1st Marines2nd Battalion, 1st Marines is an infantry battalion in the United States Marine Corps based out of Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, California. Nicknamed "The Professionals," the battalion consists of approximately 1000 Marines and Sailors...
- 2nd Battalion 2nd Marines2nd Battalion 2nd Marines2nd Battalion, 2nd Marines is a light infantry battalion in the United States Marine Corps based out of Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. Also known as "Warlord", it consists of approximately 800 Marines and Sailors and normally falls under the command of the 2nd Marine Regiment and...
- 3rd Battalion 4th Marines3rd Battalion 4th Marines3rd Battalion, 4th Marines is an infantry battalion of the United States Marine Corps. Nicknamed "Thundering Third" it is known within the battalion as "Darkside" and the radio callsigns of the command and staff reflect this moniker. They are based at the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center...
- 2nd Battalion 7th Marines2nd Battalion 7th MarinesThe 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines is a light infantry battalion of the United States Marine Corps. They are based at the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms and consist of approximately 800 Marines and Sailors...
- 3rd Battalion 24th Marines3rd Battalion 24th Marines3rd Battalion 24th Marines is a reserve infantry battalion in the United States Marine Corps located throughout the Midwestern United States consisting of approximately 800 Marines and Sailors...
- 1st Tank Battalion1st Tank BattalionThe 1st Tank Battalion is an armor battalion of the United States Marine Corps which is based out of the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms, California...
- 1st Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion1st Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion1st Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion is a mechanized infantry battalion of the United States Marine Corps. Nicknamed the "Highlanders," their primary weapon system is the LAV-25 and they fall under the command of the 1st Marine Division and the I Marine Expeditionary Force...
- 2nd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion2nd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion2nd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion is a mechanized infantry battalion of the United States Marine Corps. Their primary weapon system is the LAV-25 and they fall under the command of the 2nd Marine Division and II Marine Expeditionary Force. The unit is based out of the Marine Corps Base...
- 1st Reconnaissance Battalion1st Reconnaissance Battalion1st Reconnaissance Battalion is a reconnaissance battalion in the United States Marine Corps. It falls under the command of the 1st Marine Division and the I Marine Expeditionary Force ....
- 1st Combat Engineer Battalion1st Combat Engineer Battalion1st Combat Engineer Battalion is a combat engineer battalion of the United States Marine Corps. The unit, nicknamed "The Super Breed", is based at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, California and falls under the command of the 1st Marine Division and the I Marine Expeditionary...
- 2nd Combat Engineer Battalion2nd Combat Engineer Battalion2nd Combat Engineer Battalion is a combat engineer battalion of the United States Marine Corps. They are based out of Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina and fall under the command of the 2nd Marine Division and the II Marine Expeditionary Force....
- 3rd Assault Amphibian Battalion3rd Assault Amphibian Battalion3rd Assault Amphibian Battalion is one of two active duty assault amphibian battalions in the United States Marine Corps. The battalion's primary weapon system is the Amphibious Assault Vehicle or AAV...
- 21st Military Police Company (Operationally Controlled Under the 1st Marine Division)
- 1st Battalion 5th Marines
- 1st Force Service Support Group
- Combat Service Support Company 113
- 1st Infantry Division
- 1st Battalion, 16th Infantry16th Infantry Regiment (United States)The 16th Infantry Regiment is a regiment in the United States Army.-Formation:The 34th Infantry Regiment and 11th Infantry Regiment consolidated into the 16th Infantry Regiment on 3 March 1869. The 11th Infantry's history prior to the consolidation is normally included with the 16th's.-U.S...
- 1st Battalion, 16th Infantry
- 5th Special Forces Group
- "Delta Force"
- 10th Mountain Division
- 1st Battalion 32nd Infantry32d Infantry Regiment (United States)The 32nd Infantry Regiment is a formation of the United States Army.-History:The 32nd Regiment was first organized on 7 August 1916, on Oahu, Hawaii, Hawaii from elements of the 1st and 2nd Infantry Regiments...
- 1st Battalion 32nd Infantry
- HMM-161HMM-161Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron 161 is a United States Marine Corps helicopter squadron consisting of MV-22 Osprey transport tiltrotors. The squadron, known as the "Greyhawks", is based at Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, California and falls under the command of Marine Aircraft Group 16 and...
- HMLA-775HMLA-775Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron 775 was a reserve United States Marine Corps helicopter squadron consisting of AH-1W SuperCobra attack helicopters and UH-1N Huey utility helicopters...
- HMLA-167HMLA-167Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron 167 is a United States Marine Corps helicopter squadron consisting of AH-1W SuperCobra attack helicopters and UH-1N Huey utility helicopters...
- VFA-131VFA-131Strike Fighter Squadron 131 , also known as the "Wildcats", is a United States Navy F/A-18C Hornet fighter squadron stationed at Naval Air Station Oceana. Their radio call sign is "Cat" and their aircraft tail code is AG.-Mission:...
- Combat Service Support Battalion 1Combat Logistics Battalion 1Combat Logistics Battalion 1 is a logistics battalion of the United States Marine Corps. They are part of Combat Logistics Regiment 1 and the 1st Marine Logistics Group...
- 505th Iraqi Civil Defense Corps (ICDC)
- 30th Iraqi Commando Battalion, Iraqi Special Operations Brigade
- Iraqi National Counter-Terrorism Force
Media
- No True Glory: A Frontline Account of the Battle for Fallujah, by Bing WestBing WestFrancis J. "Bing" West is an author and former Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs during the Reagan Administration. His 2004 book The March Up: Taking Baghdad with the First Marine Division, written with United States Marine Corps General Ray L...
(2005) (ISBN 978-0-553-80402-7)- No True Glory: The Battle for Fallujah, an upcoming film based on Bing West'sBing WestFrancis J. "Bing" West is an author and former Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs during the Reagan Administration. His 2004 book The March Up: Taking Baghdad with the First Marine Division, written with United States Marine Corps General Ray L...
book starring Harrison FordHarrison FordHarrison Ford is an American film actor and producer. He is famous for his performances as Han Solo in the original Star Wars trilogy and as the title character of the Indiana Jones film series. Ford is also known for his roles as Rick Deckard in Blade Runner, John Book in Witness and Jack Ryan in...
- No True Glory: The Battle for Fallujah, an upcoming film based on Bing West's
- Blood Stripes: The Grunt's View of the War in Iraq, by David J. Danelo (2007) (ISBN 978-0-8117-3393-9)
- Boredom By Day, Death By Night: An Iraq War Journal, by Marine Sgt Seth Connor (2007) (ISBN 978-0-9795389-0-2)
- Once a Marine: An Iraq War Tank Commander's Inspirational Memoir of Combat, Courage, and Recovery, by Nicholas Popaditch, with Mike Steere (2008) (ISBN 978-1-932714-47-0)
- "Fallujah Forensics" a documentary film by Tara SuttonTara SuttonTara Sutton is a Canadian journalist and filmmaker whose work in conflict zones has received many awards. She is one of only a handful of international television correspondents that both produce and shoot their own reports also known as "video journalism"....
See also
- Second Battle of Fallujah
- United States occupation of FallujahUnited States occupation of FallujahThe United States occupation of Fallujah began in April 2003, one month following the beginning of the invasion of Iraq. In April 2003 US forces opened fire on a group of demonstrators, claiming they were fired at. Fallujah's mayor, Taha Bedaiwi al-Alwani, said that two people were killed and 14...
- 2004 in Iraq2004 in Iraq-Incumbents:* Head of State -*# Government Administrator – L. Paul Bremer III *# President - Ghazi Mashal Ajil al-Yawer * Head of Government -*# President of the Governing Council of Iraq - Adnan Pachachi...
- History of Iraqi insurgencyHistory of Iraqi insurgencyThis is a history of the Iraqi insurgency, the armed opposition to the United States-led multinational force in Iraq in Iraq and the post-2003 Iraqi government.-Build up to insurgency:...
- Iraqi InsurgencyIraqi insurgencyThe Iraqi Resistance is composed of a diverse mix of militias, foreign fighters, all-Iraqi units or mixtures opposing the United States-led multinational force in Iraq and the post-2003 Iraqi government...
External resources
- "U.S. Launches 'Vigilant Resolve'", Associated PressAssociated PressThe Associated Press is an American news agency. The AP is a cooperative owned by its contributing newspapers, radio and television stations in the United States, which both contribute stories to the AP and use material written by its staff journalists...
, 5 April 2004. News article published at the start of the operation. - Hardball with Chris Matthews, 7 April 2004. MSNBCMSNBCMSNBC is a cable news channel based in the United States available in the US, Germany , South Africa, the Middle East and Canada...
transcript of a television report providing information on Operation Vigilant Resolve and the rest of the spring uprisings. - Vigilant Resolve: Remembering the First Siege of Fallujah with Dahr Jamail . An op-ed highly critical of US media treatment of the operations which provides some details on the 2003 developments.
- "Private Warriors", PBS Frontline.