Operation Argus
Encyclopedia
Operation Argus was a series of nuclear weapons tests
and missile
tests secretly conducted during August and September 1958 over the South Atlantic Ocean by the United States's Defense Nuclear Agency, in conjunction with the Explorer 4
space mission. Operation Argus was conducted between the nuclear test series Operation Hardtack I
and Operation Hardtack II
. Contractors from Lockheed
Aircraft Corporation as well as a few personnel and contractors from the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
were on hand as well. The time frame for Argus was substantially expedited due to the instability of the political environment, i.e. forthcoming bans on atmospheric and exoatmospheric testing. Consequently, the tests were conducted within a mere half year of conception (whereas "normal" testing took one to two years).
Originally Argus was designated Hardtack-Argus, and later FLORAL. For reasons of security, both names were dropped in favor of the independent name Argus.
Funding was provided by the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project
(AFSWP), the predecessor of today's Defense Threat Reduction Agency
(DTRA). Total funds allotted for the project were US$ 9,023,000.
The United States Navy
Task Force 88 (or TF-88), was formed April 28, 1958. TF-88 was organized solely to conduct Operation Argus. Once Argus was completed, the task force was dissolved, and its records dispersed. Some of these records have been destroyed or lost in the intervening time period. Of particular note among the missing documents were the film records (which recorded radiation levels during the Argus tests). This has proved contentious due to the higher-than-normal number of leukemia
claims among TF-88 participants to the Veterans Administration
. Because of this, it has been difficult to resolve just how much radiation participants were exposed to.
The Norton Sound
was responsible for missile-launching functions. She also served as a training facility for crews involved in the testing. The X-17A missiles
to be used in the test were unfamiliar to those conducting the tests. Exercises including assembly and repair of dummy missiles were conducted aboard the Norton Sound. She also carried a 27-MHz COZI
radar, which was operated by Air Force Cambridge Research Center, which was used to monitor effects of the shots.
The Albemarle
, fresh out of an overhaul, was not listed on the TF-88 order. She set out to the Atlantic, supposedly on shakedown. She, too, mounted a COZI radar and other instrumentation for detecting man-made ionization.
The Tarawa
served as overall command of the operation, with her commander serving as Task Group Commander. She carried an Air Force
MSQ-1A radar and communication system for missile tracking. She also housed VS-32
aircraft for search and security operations as well as scientific measurement, photographic, and observer missions for each shot. HS-5
was also aboard and provided intra-task-force transportation for personnel and cargo.
The Warrington
, in conjunction with the Bearss
, Hammerberg
, and Courtney
maintained a weather
picket
463 km west of the task force, provided a plane guard for the Tarawa during flight operations, and carried out standard destroyer functions (such as surface security and search and rescue). The Warrington also carried equipment for launching Loki Dart rockets.
The Neosho
refueled task force ships during the operation. She was also outfitted with Air Force MSQ-1A radar.
The Salamonie returned to the United States upon arrival at TF-88, and did not participate in any shots.
About 1800 km southwest of Cape Town
, South Africa, USS Norton Sound
launched three modified X-17A missiles
armed with 1.7 kt W-25 nuclear warheads
into the upper atmosphere
, where high altitude nuclear explosion
s took place. Due to the South Atlantic Anomaly
, the Van Allen radiation belt
is closer to the Earth's surface at that location. The (extreme) altitude of the tests was chosen so as to prevent personnel involved in the test from being exposed to any ionizing radiation
.
Coordinated measurement programs involving satellite, rocket, aircraft, and surface stations were employed by the services as well as other government agencies and various contractors worldwide.
The tests were proposed by Nicholas Christofilos
of what was then the Livermore branch of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (now Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
) as a means to verify the Christofilos effect
, which argued that high-altitude nuclear detonations would create a radiation belt in the extreme upper regions of the Earth's atmosphere. Such belts would be similar in effect to the Van Allen radiation belt
s. Such radiation belts were viewed as having possible tactical use in war
. Prior to Argus, Hardtack Teak
had shown disruption of radio communications from a nuclear blast. However, this was not due to the creation of radiation belts.
The Argus explosions created artificial electron
belts resulting from the β-decay
of fission
fragments. These lasted for several weeks. Such radiation belts affect radio
and radar
transmissions, damage or destroy arming and fusing
mechanisms of intercontinental ballistic missile
warhead
s, and endanger crews of orbit
ing space vehicles.
Argus proved the validity of Christofilos theory: the establishment of an electron shell derived from neutron and β-decay of fission products and ionization of device materials in the upper atmosphere was demonstrated. It not only provided data on military considerations, but produced a "great mass" of geophysical data.
The tests were first reported by the New York Times on March 19, 1959, headlining it as the "greatest scientific experiment ever conducted." Approximately nine ships and 4,500 people participated in the operation. After the completion of testing, the task force returned to the United States via Rio de Janeiro
, Brazil
.
While the tests were announced the following year, the full results and documentation of the tests were not declassified until April 30, 1982.
Nuclear testing
Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield and explosive capability of nuclear weapons. Throughout the twentieth century, most nations that have developed nuclear weapons have tested them...
and missile
Missile
Though a missile may be any thrown or launched object, it colloquially almost always refers to a self-propelled guided weapon system.-Etymology:The word missile comes from the Latin verb mittere, meaning "to send"...
tests secretly conducted during August and September 1958 over the South Atlantic Ocean by the United States's Defense Nuclear Agency, in conjunction with the Explorer 4
Explorer 4
Explorer 4 was a US satellite launched on July 26, 1958. It was instrumented by Dr. James van Allen's group. The Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency had initially planned two satellites for the purposes of studying the Van Allen radiation belts and the effects of nuclear...
space mission. Operation Argus was conducted between the nuclear test series Operation Hardtack I
Operation Hardtack I
Operation Hardtack I was a series of 35 nuclear tests conducted by the United States in 1958 in the Pacific Ocean.Operation Newsreel was a series of three high-altitude nuclear tests conducted as part of Hardtack I. The individual tests in the series were Orange, Teak and Yucca.-Test Blasts:-...
and Operation Hardtack II
Operation Hardtack II
Operation Hardtack II was a series of 37 nuclear tests conducted by the United States in 1958 at the Nevada Test Site.With test moratoriums on the horizon, American weapons labs rushed out many new designs. After the conclusion of Hardtack II, the United States announced a unilateral testing...
. Contractors from Lockheed
Lockheed Corporation
The Lockheed Corporation was an American aerospace company. Lockheed was founded in 1912 and later merged with Martin Marietta to form Lockheed Martin in 1995.-Origins:...
Aircraft Corporation as well as a few personnel and contractors from the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
United States Atomic Energy Commission
The United States Atomic Energy Commission was an agency of the United States government established after World War II by Congress to foster and control the peace time development of atomic science and technology. President Harry S...
were on hand as well. The time frame for Argus was substantially expedited due to the instability of the political environment, i.e. forthcoming bans on atmospheric and exoatmospheric testing. Consequently, the tests were conducted within a mere half year of conception (whereas "normal" testing took one to two years).
Original mission objectives
- Two missiles, with warheads 136–227 kg to be launched within one month of each other, originating from a single site.
- The missiles were to be detonated at altitudes of 200–1,000 mi, and also at 2,000–4,000 miles. Both detonations should occur near the geomagnetic equator.
- Satellites were to be placed in equatorial (up to 30°) and polar (up to 70°) orbits, with perigeePerigeePerigee is the point at which an object makes its closest approach to the Earth.. Often the term is used in a broader sense to define the point in an orbit where the orbiting body is closest to the body it orbits. The opposite is the apogee, the farthest or highest point.The Greek prefix "peri"...
s of roughly 322 km and apogees of roughly 2,900 km or greater. These satellites were to be used to measure electron density over time, and include a magnetometer, as well as a means for measuring ambient radio noise. Measurements were to be taken before the shots to determine a baseline, as well as during and after the events. - Sounding rocketSounding rocketA sounding rocket, sometimes called a research rocket, is an instrument-carrying rocket designed to take measurements and perform scientific experiments during its sub-orbital flight. The origin of the term comes from nautical vocabulary, where to sound is to throw a weighted line from a ship into...
s, fired from appropriate ground locations, were to carry the same instrumentation as the satellites, except for radio noise. Ground stations to be used to study effects on radio astronomy and radar probing as well as auroral measurements.
Originally Argus was designated Hardtack-Argus, and later FLORAL. For reasons of security, both names were dropped in favor of the independent name Argus.
Funding was provided by the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project
Armed Forces Special Weapons Project
The Armed Forces Special Weapons Project was a United States military agency responsible for those aspects of nuclear weapons remaining under the military after the the Manhattan Project was succeeded by the Atomic Energy Commission on 1 January 1947...
(AFSWP), the predecessor of today's Defense Threat Reduction Agency
Defense Threat Reduction Agency
The Defense Threat Reduction Agency is an agency within the United States Department of Defense and is the official Combat Support Agency for countering weapons of mass destruction . DTRA's main functions are threat reduction, threat control, combat support, and technology development...
(DTRA). Total funds allotted for the project were US$ 9,023,000.
Task Force 88
United States Navy
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U.S. Navy is the largest in the world; its battle fleet tonnage is greater than that of the next 13 largest navies combined. The U.S...
Task Force 88 (or TF-88), was formed April 28, 1958. TF-88 was organized solely to conduct Operation Argus. Once Argus was completed, the task force was dissolved, and its records dispersed. Some of these records have been destroyed or lost in the intervening time period. Of particular note among the missing documents were the film records (which recorded radiation levels during the Argus tests). This has proved contentious due to the higher-than-normal number of leukemia
Leukemia
Leukemia or leukaemia is a type of cancer of the blood or bone marrow characterized by an abnormal increase of immature white blood cells called "blasts". Leukemia is a broad term covering a spectrum of diseases...
claims among TF-88 participants to the Veterans Administration
United States Department of Veterans Affairs
The United States Department of Veterans Affairs is a government-run military veteran benefit system with Cabinet-level status. It is the United States government’s second largest department, after the United States Department of Defense...
. Because of this, it has been difficult to resolve just how much radiation participants were exposed to.
The Norton Sound
USS Norton Sound (AVM-1)
USS Norton Sound was originally built as a by Los Angeles Shipbuilding and Drydock Company in San Pedro, California. She was named for Norton Sound, a large inlet in West Alaska, between the Seward Peninsula and the mouths of the Yukon, north-east of the Bering Sea.-Career:Norton Sound was laid...
was responsible for missile-launching functions. She also served as a training facility for crews involved in the testing. The X-17A missiles
Lockheed X-17
The Lockheed X-17 was a three stage solid-fuel research rocket to test the effects of high mach atmospheric reentry. The first stage of the X-17 carried the rocket to a height of before burning out. The rocket would then coast on momentum to about before nosing down for reentry. The second stage...
to be used in the test were unfamiliar to those conducting the tests. Exercises including assembly and repair of dummy missiles were conducted aboard the Norton Sound. She also carried a 27-MHz COZI
Cozi
Cozi is an American startup company, that provides mobile and Internet-based applications to help families stay organized. The company had 35 employees as of June 24, 2011, and is based in Seattle, Washington. Cozi's tag line is "Family Life. Simplified."...
radar, which was operated by Air Force Cambridge Research Center, which was used to monitor effects of the shots.
The Albemarle
USS Albemarle (AV-5)
USS Albemarle was one of only two Curtiss-class seaplane tenders built for the United States Navy just prior to the United States' entry into World War II. Named for Albemarle Sound and Albemarle, North Carolina, and Albemarle County, Virginia, she was the third U.S...
, fresh out of an overhaul, was not listed on the TF-88 order. She set out to the Atlantic, supposedly on shakedown. She, too, mounted a COZI radar and other instrumentation for detecting man-made ionization.
The Tarawa
USS Tarawa (CV-40)
USS Tarawa was one of 24 s built during and shortly after World War II for the United States Navy. The ship was the first US Navy ship to bear the name, and was named for the bloody 1943 Battle of Tarawa. Tarawa was commissioned in December 1945, too late to serve in World War II. After serving a...
served as overall command of the operation, with her commander serving as Task Group Commander. She carried an Air Force
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...
MSQ-1A radar and communication system for missile tracking. She also housed VS-32
VS-32
VS-32, Sea Control Squadron 32, known as the Maulers was commissioned as Air Anti-Submarine Squadron 32 in April 1950. The squadron initially flew the Grumman TBM-3E/-3W Avenger and was based at Naval Air Station Norfolk, Virginia. In 1951 the squadron moved to Naval Air Station Quonset Point,...
aircraft for search and security operations as well as scientific measurement, photographic, and observer missions for each shot. HS-5
HS-5
Helicopter Anti-submarine Squadron Five Nightdippers is a helicopter squadron of the United States Navy based at Naval Station Norfolk. The Nightdippers are a part of Carrier Air Wing Seven and deploy aboard the .-History:...
was also aboard and provided intra-task-force transportation for personnel and cargo.
The Warrington
USS Warrington (DD-843)
USS Warrington was a destroyer that served the U.S. Navy from the end of World War II to the Vietnam War, when she was damaged by two underwater explosions, causing her to be listed as “beyond repair” and excessed to the Navy of the Republic of China.-Built in Bath, Maine:The third U.S...
, in conjunction with the Bearss
USS Bearss (DD-654)
USS Bearss was a Fletcher-class destroyer of the United States Navy, named for Brigadier General Hiram I. Bearss , USMC, who was awarded the Medal of Honor during the Philippine-American War....
, Hammerberg
USS Hammerberg (DE-1015)
USS Hammerberg , a , was a ship of the United States Navy named for Navy diver Francis P. Hammerberg , of Flint, Michigan, who was awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously for rescuing two fellow divers from a wreck in Pearl Harbor....
, and Courtney
USS Courtney (DE-1021)
The second USS Courtney , a , was a ship of the United States Navy named for Marine Major Henry A. Courtney, Jr. , who was awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously for his heroism in the Battle of Okinawa....
maintained a weather
Weather
Weather is the state of the atmosphere, to the degree that it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy. Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere, just below the stratosphere. Weather refers, generally, to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate...
picket
Picket (military)
In military terminology, a picket refers to soldiers or troops placed on a line forward of a position to warn against an enemy advance. It can also refer to any unit performing a similar function...
463 km west of the task force, provided a plane guard for the Tarawa during flight operations, and carried out standard destroyer functions (such as surface security and search and rescue). The Warrington also carried equipment for launching Loki Dart rockets.
The Neosho
USS Neosho (AO-143)
|- See also :* List of United States Navy ships...
refueled task force ships during the operation. She was also outfitted with Air Force MSQ-1A radar.
The Salamonie returned to the United States upon arrival at TF-88, and did not participate in any shots.
The tests
Cape Town
Cape Town is the second-most populous city in South Africa, and the provincial capital and primate city of the Western Cape. As the seat of the National Parliament, it is also the legislative capital of the country. It forms part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality...
, South Africa, USS Norton Sound
USS Norton Sound (AVM-1)
USS Norton Sound was originally built as a by Los Angeles Shipbuilding and Drydock Company in San Pedro, California. She was named for Norton Sound, a large inlet in West Alaska, between the Seward Peninsula and the mouths of the Yukon, north-east of the Bering Sea.-Career:Norton Sound was laid...
launched three modified X-17A missiles
Lockheed X-17
The Lockheed X-17 was a three stage solid-fuel research rocket to test the effects of high mach atmospheric reentry. The first stage of the X-17 carried the rocket to a height of before burning out. The rocket would then coast on momentum to about before nosing down for reentry. The second stage...
armed with 1.7 kt W-25 nuclear warheads
Nuclear weapon
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first fission bomb test released the same amount...
into the upper atmosphere
Earth's atmosphere
The atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth that is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night...
, where high altitude nuclear explosion
High altitude nuclear explosion
High-altitude nuclear explosions have historically been nuclear explosions which take place above altitudes of 30 km, still inside the Earth's atmosphere. Such explosions have been tests of nuclear weapons, used to determine the effects of the blast and radiation in the exoatmospheric...
s took place. Due to the South Atlantic Anomaly
South Atlantic Anomaly
The South Atlantic Anomaly is an area where the Earth's inner Van Allen radiation belt comes closest to the Earth's surface. This leads to an increased flux of energetic particles in this region and exposes orbiting satellites to higher than usual levels of radiation...
, the Van Allen radiation belt
Van Allen radiation belt
The Van Allen radiation belt is a torus of energetic charged particles around Earth, which is held in place by Earth's magnetic field. It is believed that most of the particles that form the belts come from solar wind, and other particles by cosmic rays. It is named after its discoverer, James...
is closer to the Earth's surface at that location. The (extreme) altitude of the tests was chosen so as to prevent personnel involved in the test from being exposed to any ionizing radiation
Ionizing radiation
Ionizing radiation is radiation composed of particles that individually have sufficient energy to remove an electron from an atom or molecule. This ionization produces free radicals, which are atoms or molecules containing unpaired electrons...
.
Coordinated measurement programs involving satellite, rocket, aircraft, and surface stations were employed by the services as well as other government agencies and various contractors worldwide.
The tests were proposed by Nicholas Christofilos
Nicholas Christofilos
Nicholas Constantine Christofilos was a Greek-American physicist.Christofilos was born in Boston, Massachusetts and raised in Greece...
of what was then the Livermore branch of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (now Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , just outside Livermore, California, is a Federally Funded Research and Development Center founded by the University of California in 1952...
) as a means to verify the Christofilos effect
Christofilos Effect
The Christofilos Effect refers to the entrapment of charged particles along magnetic lines of force. It was first predicted in 1957 by American amateur scientist Nicholas Christofilos, a salesman for an elevator firm. He sent his calculations to scientists engaged in related research, with little...
, which argued that high-altitude nuclear detonations would create a radiation belt in the extreme upper regions of the Earth's atmosphere. Such belts would be similar in effect to the Van Allen radiation belt
Van Allen radiation belt
The Van Allen radiation belt is a torus of energetic charged particles around Earth, which is held in place by Earth's magnetic field. It is believed that most of the particles that form the belts come from solar wind, and other particles by cosmic rays. It is named after its discoverer, James...
s. Such radiation belts were viewed as having possible tactical use in war
War
War is a state of organized, armed, and often prolonged conflict carried on between states, nations, or other parties typified by extreme aggression, social disruption, and usually high mortality. War should be understood as an actual, intentional and widespread armed conflict between political...
. Prior to Argus, Hardtack Teak
Hardtack Teak
HARDTACK-Teak was an exoatmospheric high altitude nuclear weapon test performed during Operation Hardtack I. It was launched from Johnston Island on a Redstone missile. On 1 August 1958, the 3.8 Mt shot detonated at an altitude of 76.8 km. Teak caused communications impairment over a...
had shown disruption of radio communications from a nuclear blast. However, this was not due to the creation of radiation belts.
The Argus explosions created artificial electron
Electron
The electron is a subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric charge. It has no known components or substructure; in other words, it is generally thought to be an elementary particle. An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton...
belts resulting from the β-decay
Beta decay
In nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle is emitted from an atom. There are two types of beta decay: beta minus and beta plus. In the case of beta decay that produces an electron emission, it is referred to as beta minus , while in the case of a...
of fission
Nuclear fission
In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts , often producing free neutrons and photons , and releasing a tremendous amount of energy...
fragments. These lasted for several weeks. Such radiation belts affect radio
Radio
Radio is the transmission of signals through free space by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space...
and radar
Radar
Radar is an object-detection system which uses radio waves to determine the range, altitude, direction, or speed of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The radar dish or antenna transmits pulses of radio...
transmissions, damage or destroy arming and fusing
Fuse (explosives)
In an explosive, pyrotechnic device or military munition, a fuse is the part of the device that initiates function. In common usage, the word fuse is used indiscriminately...
mechanisms of intercontinental ballistic missile
Intercontinental ballistic missile
An intercontinental ballistic missile is a ballistic missile with a long range typically designed for nuclear weapons delivery...
warhead
Warhead
The term warhead refers to the explosive material and detonator that is delivered by a missile, rocket, or torpedo.- Etymology :During the early development of naval torpedoes, they could be equipped with an inert payload that was intended for use during training, test firing and exercises. This...
s, and endanger crews of orbit
Orbit
In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of an object around a point in space, for example the orbit of a planet around the center of a star system, such as the Solar System...
ing space vehicles.
Argus proved the validity of Christofilos theory: the establishment of an electron shell derived from neutron and β-decay of fission products and ionization of device materials in the upper atmosphere was demonstrated. It not only provided data on military considerations, but produced a "great mass" of geophysical data.
The tests were first reported by the New York Times on March 19, 1959, headlining it as the "greatest scientific experiment ever conducted." Approximately nine ships and 4,500 people participated in the operation. After the completion of testing, the task force returned to the United States via Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro , commonly referred to simply as Rio, is the capital city of the State of Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city of Brazil, and the third largest metropolitan area and agglomeration in South America, boasting approximately 6.3 million people within the city proper, making it the 6th...
, Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
.
While the tests were announced the following year, the full results and documentation of the tests were not declassified until April 30, 1982.
List of Argus launches
- Argus I
- Time: 02:28 August 27, 1958 (GMTGreenwich Mean TimeGreenwich Mean Time is a term originally referring to mean solar time at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London. It is arguably the same as Coordinated Universal Time and when this is viewed as a time zone the name Greenwich Mean Time is especially used by bodies connected with the United...
) - Location: 38.5° South, 11.5° WestWestWest is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating direction or geography.West is one of the four cardinal directions or compass points. It is the opposite of east and is perpendicular to north and south.By convention, the left side of a map is west....
- Altitude: 124 mile (200 km)
- Time: 02:28 August 27, 1958 (GMT
- Argus II
- Time: 03:18 August 30, 1958 (GMT)
- Location: 49.5° South, 8.2° West
- Altitude: 159 miles (256 km)
- Argus III
- Time: 22:13 September 6, 1958 (GMT)
- Location: 48.5° South, 9.7° West
- Altitude: 335 miles (539 km) (perhaps the highest nuclear explosion ever)
Further reading
- Chun, Lt. Col. Clayton K. S. Shooting down a "Star": Program 437, the US Nuclear ASAT System and Present-Day Copycat Killers. College of Aerospace Doctrine Research and Education. April, 2000, Maxwell Air Force BaseMaxwell Air Force BaseMaxwell Air Force Base , officially known as Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base, is a United States Air Force installation under the Air Education and Training Command . The installation is located in Montgomery, Alabama, US. It was named in honor of Second Lieutenant William C...
, AlabamaAlabamaAlabama is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its inland...
.
External links
- Operation Argus film by US government (45:26)