Nine exterminations
Encyclopedia
The nine familial exterminations or nine kinship exterminations , literally "family execution" and miè zú (灭族/滅族), literally "family extermination" or "execution of nine relations") was the most serious punishment for a capital offense in Ancient China. Typically associated with offenses such as treason
, the punishment involved the execution of all relatives of an individual, which were categorized into nine groups. The occurrence of this punishment was somewhat rare, with relatively few sentences recorded throughout history. There were also variants of the punishment found in ancient Korea
and Vietnam
(the most prominent example being the family of Nguyễn Trãi).
, a historical account of the Shang
(1600 BC – 1046 BC) and Zhou
(1045 BC – 256 BC) Dynasties, where it is recorded that prior to a military battle, officers would threaten their subordinates that they would exterminate their families if they refused to obey orders.
From the Spring and Autumn period (770BC–403BC), there are records of exterminations of "three tribes" . A notable case where under the State of Qin, lawmaker Shang Yang
had his entire family killed by order of King Huiwen of Qin, while he himself was sentenced to death in 338 BC by being fastened to four chariot
s and pulled apart, an ironic occurrence as it was Shang Yang who formulated such a punishment into Qin law in the first place, being commonly recorded as a lawmaker who used excessive punishments.
During the Qin Dynasty
(221 BC – 207 BC), punishments became even more rigorous under the first emperor of the unified China state, Qin Shi Huang
(259 BC – 210 BC). In order to uphold his rule, strict laws were enforced, where deception
, libel and the study of books (see Burning of books and burying of scholars
) became punishable by familial extermination. This increase in tyranny only helped to speed up the overthrow of the Qin Dynasty. The Han Dynasty
(202 BC – 220 AD), although it inherited the concept of family execution, was more moderate in inflicting such severe punishments. In many cases, the Han Emperor would retract the sentence, and so family executions were much rarer than under the Qin Dynasty. During the Tang Dynasty
(618 – 907), the family punishment was not abolished, but it was only applied to those who plotted against the rule of the Emperor. By this time, the penalty had become more regulated and different; from the Tang Code
, the sentence involved the death of parents, children over the age of sixteen, and other close kindred, and was only applied to the offenses of treason
and rebellion
.
From the Ming
(1368–1644) and Qing
(1644–1912) Dynasties onward, the extent to which those within the family were exterminated was increased. Under the Hongwu Emperor
(r. 1368 – 98), those committing rebellion and treason were punished by having their parents, grandparents, brethren (by birth, as well as "sworn brothers"), children, grandchildren, those living with the criminal regardless of surname, uncles and the children of brethren put to death, as well as death themselves by slow slicing or lingchi. The number of sentences during the Ming were higher than that of the Tang, due to the policy of "showing mercy beneath the sword" , while females were given the choice to become slaves rather than to be killed. A rare case was Fang Xiaoru
(1357 — 1402), whose students and friends were also executed as the 10th family by the Yongle Emperor
(r. 1402 — 1424), the only case where the "ten exterminations" were carried out. The punishment by family extermination during the Qing Dynasty
was a direct imitation of the regulation under the Ming.
The abolishment of the punishment by nine exterminations under the Qing occurred in 1905, where the punishment was officially repealed by the Qing government.
Confucian principles also play a major role in the outline of the punishment; regarding the killing of children, such an act is disapproved by Confucian ethics, under the Mencius
"offspring is not a sinner" (Classical Chinese
: 罪人不孥) principle, and so children under a certain age are often exempt from death.
There are different interpretations regarding the concept of group punishment in ancient times. Typically seen as an inhumane method of upholding rule, where innocent family members are killed for the crime of a relative, the punishment also acts as a deterrent against offenses such as treason, rather than as a punishment itself. As family members have the obligation to maintain the wellbeing of their family, such a punishment would prevent individuals from committing acts of treason. The punishment is also related to the ancient cultural tradition that the action of one shames the whole family, according to the works of Confucius
and his disciples, so that in the case of an act of treason, by tradition the family bears the burden of punishment.
) in which an individual had with other people, which were referred to as the "family" or "tribe" (Chinese: 族) during that period. These relations, under Confucian principles, were bonded by filial piety
, which meant that because members of a family remained strictly loyal to one another, they were responsible for crimes committed by any member due to guilt by association
. It also provided the argument that the entire family would be responsible in supporting each other in the case of a rebellion against a ruler.
The Chinese character 族 can be translated by its original definition of "clan" or "tribe", or it can have the additional meanings of "kinship", "family" (as in 家族) or "ethnicity" (as in 民族).
Treason
In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more extreme acts against one's sovereign or nation. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, such as the murder of a husband by his wife. Treason against the king was known as high treason and treason against a...
, the punishment involved the execution of all relatives of an individual, which were categorized into nine groups. The occurrence of this punishment was somewhat rare, with relatively few sentences recorded throughout history. There were also variants of the punishment found in ancient Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
and Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
(the most prominent example being the family of Nguyễn Trãi).
Historical records
The punishment by nine exterminations is usually associated with the tyrannical rulers throughout Chinese history who were prone to use inhumane methods of asserting control (compare with slow slicing, or "death by ten thousand cuts"). The first written account of the concept is in the Classic of HistoryClassic of History
The Classic of History is a compilation of documentary records related to events in ancient history of China. It is also commonly known as the Shàngshū , or simply Shū...
, a historical account of the Shang
Shang Dynasty
The Shang Dynasty or Yin Dynasty was, according to traditional sources, the second Chinese dynasty, after the Xia. They ruled in the northeastern regions of the area known as "China proper" in the Yellow River valley...
(1600 BC – 1046 BC) and Zhou
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
(1045 BC – 256 BC) Dynasties, where it is recorded that prior to a military battle, officers would threaten their subordinates that they would exterminate their families if they refused to obey orders.
From the Spring and Autumn period (770BC–403BC), there are records of exterminations of "three tribes" . A notable case where under the State of Qin, lawmaker Shang Yang
Shang Yang
Shang Yang was an important statesman of the State of Qin during the Warring States Period of Chinese history. Born Wei Yang in the State of Wei, with the support of Duke Xiao of Qin Yang enacted numerous reforms in Qin...
had his entire family killed by order of King Huiwen of Qin, while he himself was sentenced to death in 338 BC by being fastened to four chariot
Chariot
The chariot is a type of horse carriage used in both peace and war as the chief vehicle of many ancient peoples. Ox carts, proto-chariots, were built by the Proto-Indo-Europeans and also built in Mesopotamia as early as 3000 BC. The original horse chariot was a fast, light, open, two wheeled...
s and pulled apart, an ironic occurrence as it was Shang Yang who formulated such a punishment into Qin law in the first place, being commonly recorded as a lawmaker who used excessive punishments.
During the Qin Dynasty
Qin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
(221 BC – 207 BC), punishments became even more rigorous under the first emperor of the unified China state, Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang , personal name Ying Zheng , was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 246 BC to 221 BC during the Warring States Period. He became the first emperor of a unified China in 221 BC...
(259 BC – 210 BC). In order to uphold his rule, strict laws were enforced, where deception
Deception
Deception, beguilement, deceit, bluff, mystification, bad faith, and subterfuge are acts to propagate beliefs that are not true, or not the whole truth . Deception can involve dissimulation, propaganda, and sleight of hand. It can employ distraction, camouflage or concealment...
, libel and the study of books (see Burning of books and burying of scholars
Burning of books and burying of scholars
Burning of the books and burying of the scholars is a phrase that refers to a policy and a sequence of events in the Qin Dynasty of Ancient China, between the period of 213 and 206 BC. During these events, the Hundred Schools of Thought were pruned; legalism survived...
) became punishable by familial extermination. This increase in tyranny only helped to speed up the overthrow of the Qin Dynasty. The Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
(202 BC – 220 AD), although it inherited the concept of family execution, was more moderate in inflicting such severe punishments. In many cases, the Han Emperor would retract the sentence, and so family executions were much rarer than under the Qin Dynasty. During the Tang Dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
(618 – 907), the family punishment was not abolished, but it was only applied to those who plotted against the rule of the Emperor. By this time, the penalty had become more regulated and different; from the Tang Code
Tang Code
The Tang Code was a penal code that was established and used during the Tang Dynasty in China. Supplemented by civil statutes and regulations, it became the basis for later dynastic codes not only in China but elsewhere in East Asia. The Code synthesised Legalist and Confucian interpretations of...
, the sentence involved the death of parents, children over the age of sixteen, and other close kindred, and was only applied to the offenses of treason
Treason
In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more extreme acts against one's sovereign or nation. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, such as the murder of a husband by his wife. Treason against the king was known as high treason and treason against a...
and rebellion
Rebellion
Rebellion, uprising or insurrection, is a refusal of obedience or order. It may, therefore, be seen as encompassing a range of behaviors aimed at destroying or replacing an established authority such as a government or a head of state...
.
From the Ming
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
(1368–1644) and Qing
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
(1644–1912) Dynasties onward, the extent to which those within the family were exterminated was increased. Under the Hongwu Emperor
Hongwu Emperor
The Hongwu Emperor , known variably by his given name Zhu Yuanzhang and by his temple name Taizu of Ming , was the founder and first emperor of the Ming Dynasty of China...
(r. 1368 – 98), those committing rebellion and treason were punished by having their parents, grandparents, brethren (by birth, as well as "sworn brothers"), children, grandchildren, those living with the criminal regardless of surname, uncles and the children of brethren put to death, as well as death themselves by slow slicing or lingchi. The number of sentences during the Ming were higher than that of the Tang, due to the policy of "showing mercy beneath the sword" , while females were given the choice to become slaves rather than to be killed. A rare case was Fang Xiaoru
Fang Xiaoru
Fang Xiaoru is an orthodox Confucian scholar of the Ming Dynasty, famous for his loyalty to the emperor Jianwen , of whom he had been a tutor.After Prince of Yan, Zhu Di usurped the throne in 1402...
(1357 — 1402), whose students and friends were also executed as the 10th family by the Yongle Emperor
Yongle Emperor
The Yongle Emperor , born Zhu Di , was the third emperor of the Ming Dynasty of China from 1402 to 1424. His Chinese era name Yongle means "Perpetual Happiness".He was the Prince of Yan , possessing a heavy military base in Beiping...
(r. 1402 — 1424), the only case where the "ten exterminations" were carried out. The punishment by family extermination during the Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
was a direct imitation of the regulation under the Ming.
The abolishment of the punishment by nine exterminations under the Qing occurred in 1905, where the punishment was officially repealed by the Qing government.
Punishment
The punishment involved the execution of close and extended family members. These included:- The criminal's living parents
- The criminal's living grandparents
- Any children the criminal may have, over a certain age (which is usually variable depending on the time period)
- Any grandchildren the criminal may have, over a certain age (which is usually variable depending on the time period)
- Siblings and siblings-in-law (the siblings of the criminal and that of his or her spouse, in the case where he or she is married)
- Uncles of the criminal, as well as their spouses
- The criminal himself
Confucian principles also play a major role in the outline of the punishment; regarding the killing of children, such an act is disapproved by Confucian ethics, under the Mencius
Mencius
Mencius was a Chinese philosopher who was arguably the most famous Confucian after Confucius himself.-Life:Mencius, also known by his birth name Meng Ke or Ko, was born in the State of Zou, now forming the territory of the county-level city of Zoucheng , Shandong province, only thirty kilometres ...
"offspring is not a sinner" (Classical Chinese
Classical Chinese
Classical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of written Chinese based on the grammar and vocabulary of ancient Chinese, making it different from any modern spoken form of Chinese...
: 罪人不孥) principle, and so children under a certain age are often exempt from death.
There are different interpretations regarding the concept of group punishment in ancient times. Typically seen as an inhumane method of upholding rule, where innocent family members are killed for the crime of a relative, the punishment also acts as a deterrent against offenses such as treason, rather than as a punishment itself. As family members have the obligation to maintain the wellbeing of their family, such a punishment would prevent individuals from committing acts of treason. The punishment is also related to the ancient cultural tradition that the action of one shames the whole family, according to the works of Confucius
Confucius
Confucius , literally "Master Kong", was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period....
and his disciples, so that in the case of an act of treason, by tradition the family bears the burden of punishment.
The "nine tribes"
In Ancient times, there were nine different relations (or guanxiGuanxi
Guanxi describes the basic dynamic in personalized networks of influence, and is a central idea in Chinese society. In Western media, the pinyin romanization of this Chinese word is becoming more widely used instead of the two common translations—"connections" and "relationships"—as neither of...
) in which an individual had with other people, which were referred to as the "family" or "tribe" (Chinese: 族) during that period. These relations, under Confucian principles, were bonded by filial piety
Filial piety
In Confucian ideals, filial piety is one of the virtues to be held above all else: a respect for the parents and ancestors. The Confucian classic Xiao Jing or Classic of Xiào, thought to be written around 470 BCE, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of xiào /...
, which meant that because members of a family remained strictly loyal to one another, they were responsible for crimes committed by any member due to guilt by association
Guilt by Association
Guilt by Association can refer to:* Association fallacy - sometimes called "guilt by association".* Guilt by Association Vol. 1 - album by Engine Room Recordings.* Guilt by Association Vol. 2 - album by Engine Room Recordings....
. It also provided the argument that the entire family would be responsible in supporting each other in the case of a rebellion against a ruler.
The Chinese character 族 can be translated by its original definition of "clan" or "tribe", or it can have the additional meanings of "kinship", "family" (as in 家族) or "ethnicity" (as in 民族).
See also
- Nine bestowmentsNine bestowmentsThe nine bestowments were awards given by Chinese emperors to extraordinary officials, ostensibly to reward them for their accomplishments. The nine bestowments were awards given by Chinese emperors to extraordinary officials, ostensibly to reward them for their accomplishments. The nine...
- Number nine in Chinese culture
- Chinese social relationsChinese social relationsChinese social relations are social relations typified by a reciprocal social network. Often social obligations within the network are characterized in familial terms. The individual link within the social network is known by guanxi and the feeling within the link is known by the term ganqing...
- Ren (Confucianism)Ren (Confucianism)Ren is a Confucian notion denoting, as rough approximation, the good feeling a virtuous human experiences when behaving rightly, especially toward others...
- Slow slicing
- Hanged, drawn and quarteredHanged, drawn and quarteredTo be hanged, drawn and quartered was from 1351 a penalty in England for men convicted of high treason, although the ritual was first recorded during the reigns of King Henry III and his successor, Edward I...
- Collective punishmentCollective punishmentCollective punishment is the punishment of a group of people as a result of the behavior of one or more other individuals or groups. The punished group may often have no direct association with the other individuals or groups, or direct control over their actions...
- SippenhaftSippenhaftSippenhaft or Sippenhaftung was a form of collective punishment practised in Nazi Germany towards the end of the Second World War. It was a legalized practice in which relatives of persons accused of crimes against the state were held to share the responsibility for those crimes and subject to...
- Ten AbominationsTen AbominationsThe Ten Abominations were a list of offenses under traditional Chinese law which were regarded as the most abhorrent, and which threatened the well-being of civilized society. They are listed below. The first three were capital offences:...
Additional readings
- Ma Zhongqi (馬重奇), Zhou Liying (周麗英). A discussion of historical Chinese culture 《中國古代文化知識趣談》. Daoshi Publishing Company, 2002. ISBN 978-962-397-717-3.