National Theater and Concert Hall - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

The National Theater and National Concert Hall are twin performing arts

Performing arts

The performing arts are those forms art which differ from the plastic arts insofar as the former uses the artist's own body, face, and presence as a medium, and the latter uses materials such as clay, metal or paint which can be molded or transformed to create some physical art object...

venues in Zhongzheng District, Taipei, Taiwan

Taiwan

Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...

. Completed in 1987, they are Taiwan's primary national performing arts venues. The landmarks stand, respectively, on the south and north sides of Liberty Square

Liberty Square (Taipei)

Liberty Square is a public plaza covering over 240,000 square meters in the Zhongzheng District of Taipei, Taiwan.- Overview :...

in front of the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall

Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall

The National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall is a famous monument, landmark and tourist attractions erected in memory of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, former President of the Republic of China. It is located in Taipei, Republic of China ....

. Together the structures are referred to by the acronym NTCH serving as facilities of the National Chiang Kai-shek Cultural Center. The square itself sits near Ketagalan Boulevard

Ketagalan Boulevard

Ketagalan Boulevard is located in Zhongzheng District in Taipei, Taiwan, between the Presidential Building and the East Gate . The length is 400 m. There are ten lanes for two-way traffic, and no traffic islands.-History:...

, the Presidential Office Building and National Central Library

National Central Library

The National Central Library in Taiwan is located atNo. 20, Zhongshan S. Rd., Zhongzheng District, Taipei City 10001, Taiwan .- Mission :...

History

Taiwan's National Theater and National Concert Hall are two of the first major performing arts facilities to be established in Asia. Upon the death of Chiang Kai-shek

Chiang Kai-shek

Chiang Kai-shek was a political and military leader of 20th century China. He is known as Jiǎng Jièshí or Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng in Mandarin....

in 1975, the Kuomintang

Kuomintang

The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...

government authorized the construction of a monument and cultural arts facilities on the grounds of a memorial plaza

Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall

. The project cost TWD

New Taiwan dollar

The New Taiwan dollar , or simply Taiwan dollar, is the official currency of the Taiwan Area of the Republic of China since 1949, when it replaced the Old Taiwan dollar...

7 billion.

Yang Cho-cheng

Yang Cho-cheng

Yang Cho-Cheng was an internationally renowned Chinese architect based in Taiwan. His professional career spanned over 60 years. Even though he was best known for his expertise in the Chinese style architecture, he was also a leading expert in manufacturing, high tech, finance, performing arts,...

and Architects and Engineers Associates were responsible for the overall design. The buildings, though modern in function and purpose, recall traditional elements of Chinese palace architecture. The G+H Company of Germany

Germany

Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...

and Philips

Philips

Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V. , more commonly known as Philips, is a multinational Dutch electronics company....

, based in The Netherlands, played leading roles in the design of the interior facilities, stage lighting and acoustics. Civil engineering issues were handled by Ret-Ser Engineers Agency (RSEA) and Engineering Corporation. Six directors oversaw the project from initial planning sessions to final completion: Jou Tsuo-Min, Chang Chih-liang, Liu Feng-shueh, Hu Yao-heng, Li Yen and Chu Tzung-ching.

The structures were completed on September 20, 1987, and officially opened their doors the following month as venues of the “National Chiang Kai-shek Cultural Center.” Vice President Lee Teng-hui

Lee Teng-hui

Lee Teng-hui is a politician of the Republic of China . He was the 7th, 8th, and 9th-term President of the Republic of China and Chairman of the Kuomintang from 1988 to 2000. He presided over major advancements in democratic reforms including his own re-election which marked the first direct...

and Premier Yu Kuo-hua presided over the opening ceremonies for the two buildings on October 31, 1987.

Taiwanese society made a peaceful transition from one-party authoritarian rule to pluralistic democracy

Democracy

Democracy is generally defined as a form of government in which all adult citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Ideally, this includes equal participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law...

in the 1990s. In 1999, the Ministry of Education

Ministry of Education (Republic of China)

The Ministry of Education of the Republic of China is responsible for incorporating educational policies and managing public schools throughout the Free Area of the Republic of China. The ministry is a cabinet level governmental body of the Executive Yuan...

under the administration of Lee Teng-Hui

Lee Teng-hui

, Taiwan's first elected president, consolidated the governing bodies of the National Theater and Concert Hall with those of the National Symphony Orchestra

National Symphony Orchestra (Taiwan)

The National Symphony Orchestra , also known as Philharmonia Taiwan outside Taiwan, is one of the leading orchestras in Asia. Since 1987, the orchestra has its residence in the National Concert Hall in Taipei, Taiwan.- Subscription Concert Series :...

, National Chinese Orchestra

National Chinese Orchestra

The National Chinese Orchestra, Taiwan is a Chinese orchestra based in Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China. The ensemble was founded in 1984 as the National Art Academy Experimental Chinese Orchestra. Due to administrative changes, the orchestra is renamed National Experimental Chinese Orchestra in...

and National Chorus. In 2004, this larger organization became an autonomous executive juridicial body, the National KCS Cultural Center, headed by an artistic director who reports to a board of directors.

Each structure can host at least two events simultaneously. The National Theater contains a smaller Experimental Theater and the National Concert Hall holds a more intimate Recital Hall. Outdoor performances can be staged simultaneously on the square. The pipe organ by Flentrop Orgelbouw

Flentrop

Flentrop is a Dutch company based in Zaandam that builds and restores organs.-History:It was established in 1903 by Hendrik Wicher Flentrop from Koog aan de Zaan. Hendrik, originally a house painter by trade, was an organist at the church at Zaandam, and started a piano - and organ trade...

in the National Concert Hall was the largest organ in Asia at the time of its installation in 1987. Both structures house art galleries, libraries, shops, and restaurants. The National Theater houses a Performing Arts Library and publication offices for Taiwan's Performing Arts Review.

National Theater and Concert Hall, like all performing arts venues in capital cities, play diplomatic as well as artistic roles. Guests regularly include top elected leaders in Taiwan as well as international artists and dignitaries. Visitors over the years have included Margaret Thatcher

Margaret Thatcher

Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990...

of the UK

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...

, Mikhail Gorbachev

Mikhail Gorbachev

Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev is a former Soviet statesman, having served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991, and as the last head of state of the USSR, having served from 1988 until its dissolution in 1991...

of the USSR

Soviet Union

The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....

, Lee Kuan Yew

Lee Kuan Yew

Lee Kuan Yew, GCMG, CH is a Singaporean statesman. He was the first Prime Minister of the Republic of Singapore, governing for three decades...

of Singapore

Singapore

Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...

, Rafael Calderón Muñoz

Rafael Calderón Muñoz

Rafael Calderón Muñoz was a Costa Rican politician....

of Costa Rica

Costa Rica

Costa Rica , officially the Republic of Costa Rica is a multilingual, multiethnic and multicultural country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Caribbean Sea to the east....

and former First Lady

First Lady

First Lady or First Gentlemanis the unofficial title used in some countries for the spouse of an elected head of state.It is not normally used to refer to the spouse or partner of a prime minister; the husband or wife of the British Prime Minister is usually informally referred to as prime...

Betty Ford

Elizabeth Ann Bloomer Warren Ford , better known as Betty Ford, was First Lady of the United States from 1974 to 1977 during the presidency of her husband Gerald Ford...

of the U.S.

United States

The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

Artistic Life

The National Theater and Concert Hall host a constant stream of events by local and international artists each year.

Performers who have appeared in the National Theater include the Cloud Gate Dance Theatre, The Kirov Ballet, the Suzuki Company of Toga and its director Tadashi Suzuki

Tadashi Suzuki

Tadashi Suzuki is a theatre director, writer and philosopher working out of Toga, Toyama, Japan. Suzuki is the founder and director of the Suzuki Company of Toga , organizer of Japan’s first international theatre festival , co-founder of the Saratoga International Theatre Institute in Saratoga...

, Yang Li-hua Taiwanese Opera, the Ming Hwa Yuan Theater Troupe, the Fei Ma Yu Opera Troupe and Pili Heroes

Pili (TV series)

Pili is a puppet show from Taiwan. It is made by Pili International Multimedia. The TV series started in 1985, and it still continues today. It is one of the most popular TV shows in Taiwan. Pili puppet show is performed by many kinds of puppets, some of them are cool, some are intelligent, and...

, kabuki performer Band%C5%8D Tamasabur%C5%8D V, stage director Robert Wilson

Robert Wilson (director)

Robert Wilson is an American avant-garde stage director and playwright who has been called "[America]'s — or even the world's — foremost vanguard 'theater artist'". Over the course of his wide-ranging career, he has also worked as a choreographer, performer, painter, sculptor, video...

, and dancers Martha Graham

Martha Graham

Martha Graham was an American modern dancer and choreographer whose influence on dance has been compared with the influence Picasso had on modern visual arts, Stravinsky had on music, or Frank Lloyd Wright had on architecture.She danced and choreographed for over seventy years...

, Merce Cunningham

Merce Cunningham

Mercier "Merce" Philip Cunningham was an American dancer and choreographer who was at the forefront of the American avant-garde for more than 50 years. Throughout much of his life, Cunningham was considered one of the greatest creative forces in American dance...

, Rudolph Nureyev, Pina Bausch

Pina Bausch

Philippina "Pina" Bausch was a German performer of modern dance, choreographer, dance teacher and ballet director...

, Trisha Brown

Trisha Brown

Trisha Brown is a postmodernist American choreographer and dancer.Brown was born in Aberdeen, Washington, and received a B.A. degree in dance from Mills College in 1958. Brown later received a D.F.A. from Bates College in 2000. For several summers she studied with Louis Horst at the American Dance...

, Liu Feng-hsueh, Lin Hwai-min

Lin Hwai-min

Lin Hwai-min is a Taiwanese dancer, writer, choreographer, and founder of Cloud Gate Dance Theatre of Taiwan. He was educated at National Chengchi University in Taiwan and University of Iowa in the US....

, Lo Man-fei, Yu Hao-yen and Liu Shao-lu.

International performers in the National Concert Hall have included composers Philip Glass

Philip Glass

Philip Glass is an American composer. He is considered to be one of the most influential composers of the late 20th century and is widely acknowledged as a composer who has brought art music to the public .His music is often described as minimalist, along with...

and Samuel Adler

Samuel Adler (composer)

Samuel Hans Adler is an American composer and conductor.-Biography:Adler was born to a Jewish family in Mannheim, Germany, the son of Hugo Chaim Adler, a cantor and composer, and Selma Adler. The family fled to the United States in 1939, where Hugo became the cantor of Temple Emanuel in...

and Fredrick Ernest, sopranos Jessye Norman

Jessye Norman

Jessye Norman is an American opera singer. Norman is a well-known contemporary opera singer and recitalist, and is one of the highest paid performers in classical music...

, Barbara Hendricks

Barbara Hendricks

Barbara Hendricks is an African American operatic soprano and concert singer. Hendricks has lived in Europe since 1977, and in Switzerland on Lake Geneva since 1985, She is a citizen of Sweden.-Early life and education:...

and Mirella Freni

Mirella Freni

Mirella Freni, birth name Mirella Fregni, is an Italian opera soprano whose repertoire includes Verdi, Puccini, Mozart and Tchaikovsky...

, tenors Placido Domingo

Plácido Domingo

Plácido Domingo KBE , born José Plácido Domingo Embil, is a Spanish tenor and conductor known for his versatile and strong voice, possessing a ringing and dramatic tone throughout its range...

, José Carreras

José Carreras

Josep Maria Carreras i Coll , better known as José Carreras , is a Spanish Catalan tenor particularly known for his performances in the operas of Verdi and Puccini...

and Luciano Pavarotti

Luciano Pavarotti

right|thumb|Luciano Pavarotti performing at the opening of the Constantine Palace in [[Strelna]], 31 May 2003. The concert was part of the celebrations for the 300th anniversary of [[St...

, baritone Bryn Terfel

Bryn Terfel

Bryn Terfel Jones CBE is a Welsh bass-baritone opera and concert singer. Terfel was initially associated with the roles of Mozart, particularly Figaro and Leporello, but has subsequently shifted his attention to heavier roles, especially those by Wagner....

, violinists Pinchas Zukerman

Pinchas Zukerman

Pinchas Zukerman is a world-renowned violinist, violist, and conductor. He is considered one of the greatest violinists of the 20th and 21st centuries, and his ongoing 45-year career has seen him perform with the world's best-known orchestras and record over 100 works...

, Hilary Hahn

Hilary Hahn

Hilary Hahn is an American violinist.Hahn was born in Lexington, Virginia. Beginning her studies when she was three years old at Baltimore's Peabody Institute, she was admitted to the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia at age ten, and in 1991, made her major orchestral debut with the...

and Akiko Suwanai

Akiko Suwanai

is a Japanese classical violinist.She was the youngest winner of the International Tchaikovsky Competition in 1990. In addition, she won second place in the Queen Elisabeth Music Competition in 1989 and is a laureate of the International Japan Competition.She has studied with Toshiya Eto at the...

, cellists Mstislav Rostropovich

Mstislav Rostropovich

Mstislav Leopoldovich Rostropovich, KBE , known to close friends as Slava, was a Soviet and Russian cellist and conductor. He was married to the soprano Galina Vishnevskaya. He is widely considered to have been the greatest cellist of the second half of the 20th century, and one of the greatest of...

and Yo-Yo Ma

Yo-Yo Ma

Yo-Yo Ma is an American cellist, virtuoso, and orchestral composer. He has received multiple Grammy Awards, the National Medal of Arts in 2001 and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011...

, pianists Ruth Slenczynska

Ruth Slenczynska

-Early life:Ruth was born in Sacramento, California. Her father, Joseph Slenczynski was a violinist. Pushed by her parents and starting at age three, Slenczynska was forced to practice the piano relentlessly...

, Tatiana Nikolayeva

Tatiana Nikolayeva

Tatiana Petrovna Nikolayeva was a Russian Soviet pianist, composer and teacher.-Early life:Nikolayeva was born in Bezhitsa in the Bryansk district on May 4, 1924...

, Fou Ts'ong

Fou Ts'ong

Fou Ts'ong is a Chinese pianist.Born in Shanghai to a family of intellectuals , Fou first studied piano with Mario Paci, the Italian founder of the Shanghai Symphony Orchestra...

and Vladimir Ashkenazy

Vladimir Ashkenazy

Vladimir Davidovich Ashkenazy is a Russian-Icelandic conductor and pianist. Since 1972 he has been a citizen of Iceland, his wife Þórunn's country of birth. Since 1978, because of his many obligations in Europe, he and his family have resided in Meggen, near Lucerne in Switzerland...

, conductors Simon Rattle

Simon Rattle

Sir Simon Denis Rattle, CBE is an English conductor. He rose to international prominence as conductor of the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra and since 2002 has been principal conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic ....

, Günther Herbig

Günther Herbig

Günther Herbig is a German conductor.Born in Ústí nad Labem, Czechoslovakia, Herbig studied conducting at the Franz Liszt Academy in Weimar in 1951 with Hermann Abendroth. He later was a student of Hermann Scherchen, Arvid Jansons, and Herbert von Karajan...

, Sergiu Celibidache

Sergiu Celibidache

- Biography :Celibidache was born in Roman, Romania, and began his studies in music with the piano, after which he studied music, philosophy and mathematics in Bucharest, Romania and then in Paris...

, Michael Tilson Thomas

Michael Tilson Thomas

Michael Tilson Thomas is an American conductor, pianist and composer. He is currently music director of the San Francisco Symphony, and artistic director of the New World Symphony Orchestra.-Early years:...

, Apo Hsu

Apo Hsu

Apo Hsu is a conductor born in Taiwan and resident of both Taiwan and the United States. Hsu served as music director of the National Taiwan Normal University Symphony Orchestra and the Springfield Symphony Orchestra in Springfield, Missouri...

, Helmuth Rilling

Helmuth Rilling

Helmuth Rilling is an internationally known German choral conductor, founder of the Gächinger Kantorei , the Bach-Collegium Stuttgart , the Oregon Bach Festival , the Internationale Bachakademie Stuttgart and other Bach Academies worldwide, and the "Festival Ensemble Stuttgart"...

and Lorin Maazel

Lorin Maazel

Lorin Varencove Maazel is an American conductor, violinist and composer.- Early life :Maazel was born to Jewish-American parents in Neuilly-sur-Seine in France and brought up in the United States, primarily at his parents' home in Pittsburgh's Oakland neighborhood. His father, Lincoln Maazel , was...

. Ensembles include the Juilliard String Quartet

Juilliard String Quartet

The Juilliard String Quartet is a classical music string quartet founded in 1946 at the Juilliard School in New York. The original members were violinists Robert Mann and Robert Koff, violist Raphael Hillyer, and cellist Arthur Winograd; Current members are Joseph Lin and Ronald Copes violinists,...

, the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra

Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra

The Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra is a symphony orchestra of the Netherlands, based at the Concertgebouw in Amsterdam. In 1988, Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands conferred the "Royal" title upon the orchestra...

of Amsterdam

Amsterdam

Amsterdam is the largest city and the capital of the Netherlands. The current position of Amsterdam as capital city of the Kingdom of the Netherlands is governed by the constitution of August 24, 1815 and its successors. Amsterdam has a population of 783,364 within city limits, an urban population...

, the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra

Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra

The Vienna Philharmonic is an orchestra in Austria, regularly considered one of the finest in the world....

, the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra

Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra

The Berlin Philharmonic, German: , formerly Berliner Philharmonisches Orchester , is an orchestra based in Berlin, Germany. In 2006, a group of ten European media outlets voted the Berlin Philharmonic number three on a list of "top ten European Orchestras", after the Vienna Philharmonic and the...

, the Munich Philharmonic Orchestra

Munich Philharmonic Orchestra

The Münchner Philharmoniker is a German symphony orchestra located in the city of Munich. It is one of Munich's three principal orchestras, along with the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra and the Bavarian State Orchestra...

, the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra

Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra

The Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, in German Symphonieorchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks is the internationally renowned orchestra of the Bayerischer Rundfunk , based in Munich, Germany. It is one of the three principal orchestras in the city of Munich, along with the Munich Philharmonic...

, the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra, the Shanghai Symphony Orchestra

Shanghai Symphony Orchestra

Shanghai Symphony Orchestra is an influential orchestra in China. The music director is Long Yu.It was founded in 1879 as Shanghai Public Band, one of the earliest orchestras in Eastern Asia. It was renamed to Shanghai Municipal Council Symphony Orchestra in 1922. Starting in 1919, an Italian...

and the Vienna Boys Choir. Concerts by visiting orchestras are often broadcast to overflow crowds numbering in the thousands who fill the Square. Taiwanese ensembles that regularly appear in the hall include the National Symphony Orchestra

National Symphony Orchestra (Taiwan)

, the Evergreen Symphony Orchestra

Evergreen Symphony Orchestra

The Evergreen Symphony Orchestra is a Taiwanese orchestra founded by Chang Yung-Fa Foundation of Evergreen Group in 2001. The orchestra is featured by bringing up talented Taiwanese players and promoting Taiwanese folk music...

, the Taipei Symphony Orchestra

Taipei Symphony Orchestra

The Taipei Symphony Orchestra , founded in 1969, is one of the leading orchestras based in Taipei, Taiwan.In these seasons, TSO works also with European Music directors and conductors, such as Reinhard Goebel, Martin Fischer-Dieskau or Maurice Steger.- Introduction :Under the direction of Felix...

, the National Taiwan Symphony Orchestra

National Taiwan Symphony Orchestra

The National Taiwan Symphony Orchestra , also known as NTSO, founded in 1945, is the oldest symphony orchestra in Taiwan. It is based in Wufeng, Taichung.- Principal Conductors :* Fusao Kajima , 2009-present* Chiu Chun-chiang , 2006-2009...

, the Taiwan National Choir, the Formosa Singers, and the Taipei Philharmonic Orchestra and Chorus

Taipei Philharmonic Orchestra

-History:Taipei Philharmonic Orchestra was founded in 1985 by a group of enthusiastic musicians. It has come a long way under the direction of late American conductor Henry Mazer, who came from Chicago Symphony Orchestra and stayed with TPO for over 18 years....

.

Artistic styles and traditions from across the world are represented in the halls' events, including kabuki theater, Shakespearean drama, Taiwan opera and puppet drama, Verdi opera, African dance, Beijing opera, Broadway shows, Wagnerian music drama, American jazz, Parisian comic opera, and Latin dance. Both venues are the site of a variety of festivals and special events, including the Taipei International Arts Festival, a series of International Arts Festivals ("Call Out in Ecstacy", "Poetic Essays with Lively Meanings"), the British Theatre Festival, the Chinese Drama Festival, the Taipei Film Festival

Taipei Film Festival

The Taipei Film Festival 台北電影節 is a film festival promoted by the city of Taipei, Taiwan, the Republic of China, through the Taipei City Department of Cultural Affairs....

. The buildings regularly provide a backdrop to events on Liberty Square

Liberty Square (Taipei)

Liberty Square is a public plaza covering over 240,000 square meters in the Zhongzheng District of Taipei, Taiwan.- Overview :...

, including visits to Taiwan by foreign leaders and the annual Taipei Lantern Festival. The Classic 20 festival in 2007-2008 commemorates the twentieth anniversary of the halls. The festival season features visits by Tadashi Suzuki

Tadashi Suzuki

, Philip Glass

Philip Glass

, Robert Wilson

Robert Wilson (director)

, the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra

Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra

and the Deutsche Oper am Rhein

Deutsche Oper am Rhein

The Deutsche Oper am Rhein is an opera company based in Düsseldorf and Duisburg. The opera also has an associated classical ballet company....

as well as Taiwan's Cloud Gate Dance Theater

Cloud Gate Dance Theater

Cloud Gate Dance Theatre of Taiwan is a modern dance group based in Taiwan. It was founded by choreographer Lin Hwai-min in 1973, and later he shared its management with his late protégé, Lo Man-fei , a renowned choreographer in her own right....

(雲門舞集), Yang Li-hua Taiwanese Opera (楊麗花歌仔戲), Performance Workshop Theater (表演工作坊) and New-Classic Dance Company (新古典舞團).

Nomenclature

The standard abbreviation NTCH (National Theater and Concert Hall) refers to the Cultural Center in its entirety. NCH (National Concert Hall) refers to the concert hall alone.

External links

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.

History

Artistic Life

Nomenclature

See also

External links