Lutheran Orthodoxy
Encyclopedia
Lutheran orthodoxy was an era in the history of Lutheranism
, which began in 1580 from the writing of the Book of Concord
and ended at the Age of Enlightenment
. Lutheran orthodoxy
was paralleled by similar eras in Calvinism
and tridentine
Roman Catholicism after the Counter-Reformation
.
died in 1546, and Philipp Melanchthon
in 1560. After the death of Luther came the period of the Schmalkaldic War
and disputes among Crypto-Calvinists, Philippists
, Sacramentarians
, Ubiquitarians
, and Gnesio-Lutherans
.
gave inner unity to Lutheranism, which had many controversies, mostly between Gnesio-Lutherans
and Philippists
, in Roman Catholic outward pressure and in alleged "crypto-Calvinistic" influence. Lutheran theology became more stable in its theoretical definitions.
developed gradually, especially for the purpose of arguing with the Jesuits, and it was finally established by Johann Gerhard
. Abraham Calovius
represents the climax of the scholastic
paradigm
in orthodox Lutheranism. Other orthodox Lutheran theologians were e.g. Martin Chemnitz
, Aegidius Hunnius
, Leonhard Hutter
, Nicolaus Hunnius
, Jesper Rasmussen Brochmand
, Salomo Glassius
, Johann Hülsemann
, Johann Conrad Dannhauer
, Valerius Herberger
, Johannes Andreas Quenstedt
, Johann Friedrich König
and Johann Wilhelm Baier
.
The theological heritage of Philip Melanchthon rose up again in the Helmstedt
School and especially the in theology of Georgius Calixtus, which caused the Syncretistic Controversy. Another theological issue was the Crypto-Kenotic Controversy.
and Pietism
. Orthodoxy produced numerous postil
s, which were important devotional readings. Along with hymns, they conserved orthodox Lutheran spirituality during this period of heavy influence from Pietism
and Neology
. Johann Gerhard
, Heinrich Müller
, and Christian Scriver
wrote other kinds of devotional literature http://www.stolaf.edu/people/lund/Research.htm.
The last prominent orthodox Lutheran theologian before the Enlightenment and Neology
was David Hollatz
. A later orthodox theologian, Valentin Ernst Löscher
, took part in a controversy against Pietism
. Mediaeval mystical
tradition continued in the works of Martin Moller
, Johann Arndt
and Joachim Lütkemann
. Pietism
became a rival of orthodoxy but adopted some orthodox devotional literature, such as those of Arndt
, Scriver
and Prätorius, which have often been later mixed with pietistic literature.
rituals in their normal worship as suggested by Luther. In his Hauptgottesdienst (principal service of worship), Holy Communion was celebrated on each Sunday and festival. The traditional parts of the service were retained and, sometimes, even incense
was also used. Services were conducted in vernacular
language, but in Germany, Latin was also present in both the Ordinary
and Proper
parts of the service. This helped students maintain
their familiarity with the language. As late as the time of Johann Sebastian Bach
, churches in Leipzig
still heard Polyphonic motets in Latin, Latin Glorias
, chant
ed Latin collect
s and The Creed
sung in Latin by the choir
Church music flourished and this era is considered as a "golden age" of Lutheran hymnody. Some hymnwriters include Philipp Nicolai
, Johann Heermann
, Johann von Rist
and Benjamin Schmolck
in Germany, Haquin Spegel
in Sweden, Thomas Hansen Kingo
in Denmark, Petter Dass
in Norway, Hallgrímur Pétursson
in Iceland and Hemminki Maskulainen in Finland. The most famous orthodox Lutheran hymnwriter is Paul Gerhardt
. Prominent church musicians and
composers include Michael Praetorius
, Melchior Vulpius
, Johann Hermann Schein, Heinrich Schütz
, Johann Crüger
, Dieterich Buxtehude
and Johann Sebastian Bach
Generally, the 17th century was a more difficult time than the earlier period of Reformation
, due in part to the Thirty Years' War
. Finland suffered a severe famine
in 1696-1697 as part of what is now called the Little Ice Age
, and almost one third of the population died. This struggle to survive can often be seen in hymns and devotional writings.
and pietism
and thus underestimated. Also the wide gap between theology of orthodoxy and rationalism
has sometimes more or less limited later theological neo-Lutheran and confessional Lutheran
attempts to understand and restore Lutheran orthodoxy. Most significant theologians of orthodoxy can be said to be Martin Chemnitz
and Johann Gerhard
. Lutheran orthodoxy can also be reflected in such rulers as Ernst I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Altenburg and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
.
Lutheranism
Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German reformer. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the church launched the Protestant Reformation...
, which began in 1580 from the writing of the Book of Concord
Book of Concord
The Book of Concord or Concordia is the historic doctrinal standard of the Lutheran Church, consisting of ten credal documents recognized as authoritative in Lutheranism since the 16th century...
and ended at the Age of Enlightenment
Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment was an elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted intellectual interchange and opposed intolerance and abuses in church and state...
. Lutheran orthodoxy
Orthodoxy
The word orthodox, from Greek orthos + doxa , is generally used to mean the adherence to accepted norms, more specifically to creeds, especially in religion...
was paralleled by similar eras in Calvinism
Calvinism
Calvinism is a Protestant theological system and an approach to the Christian life...
and tridentine
Tridentine
The adjective Tridentine refers to any thing or person pertaining to the city of Trent, Italy .It is applied in particular to:*The Council of Trent, one of the ecumenical councils recognized by the Roman Catholic Church, held in that city in the 16th century, and to the teachings emphasized by it...
Roman Catholicism after the Counter-Reformation
Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation was the period of Catholic revival beginning with the Council of Trent and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War, 1648 as a response to the Protestant Reformation.The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort, composed of four major elements:#Ecclesiastical or...
.
History
Martin LutherMartin Luther
Martin Luther was a German priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517...
died in 1546, and Philipp Melanchthon
Philipp Melanchthon
Philipp Melanchthon , born Philipp Schwartzerdt, was a German reformer, collaborator with Martin Luther, the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation, intellectual leader of the Lutheran Reformation, and an influential designer of educational systems...
in 1560. After the death of Luther came the period of the Schmalkaldic War
Schmalkaldic War
The Schmalkaldic War refers to the short period of violence from 1546 until 1547 between the forces of Emperor Charles I of Spain and V of the Holy Roman Empire, commanded by Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba, and the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League within the domains of the Holy Roman...
and disputes among Crypto-Calvinists, Philippists
Philippists
The Philippists formed a party in early Lutheranism. Their opponents were called Gnesio-Lutherans.-Before Luther's Death:Philippists was the designation usually applied in the latter half of the sixteenth century to the followers of Philipp Melanchthon...
, Sacramentarians
Sacramentarians
The Sacramentarians were Christians during the Protestant Reformation who denied not only the Roman Catholic transubstantiation but also the Lutheran sacramental union.They comprised two parties:...
, Ubiquitarians
Ubiquitarians
The Ubiquitarians, also called Ubiquists, were a Protestant sect started at the Lutheran synod of Stuttgart, 19 December 1559, by Johannes Brenz, a Swabian ....
, and Gnesio-Lutherans
Gnesio-Lutherans
"Gnesio-Lutherans" is a modern name for a theological party in the Lutheran Church, in opposition to the Philippists after the death of Martin Luther and before the Formula of Concord. In their own day they were called Flacians by their opponents and simply Lutherans by themselves...
.
Early orthodoxy: 1580-1600
The Book of ConcordBook of Concord
The Book of Concord or Concordia is the historic doctrinal standard of the Lutheran Church, consisting of ten credal documents recognized as authoritative in Lutheranism since the 16th century...
gave inner unity to Lutheranism, which had many controversies, mostly between Gnesio-Lutherans
Gnesio-Lutherans
"Gnesio-Lutherans" is a modern name for a theological party in the Lutheran Church, in opposition to the Philippists after the death of Martin Luther and before the Formula of Concord. In their own day they were called Flacians by their opponents and simply Lutherans by themselves...
and Philippists
Philippists
The Philippists formed a party in early Lutheranism. Their opponents were called Gnesio-Lutherans.-Before Luther's Death:Philippists was the designation usually applied in the latter half of the sixteenth century to the followers of Philipp Melanchthon...
, in Roman Catholic outward pressure and in alleged "crypto-Calvinistic" influence. Lutheran theology became more stable in its theoretical definitions.
High orthodoxy: 1600-1685
Lutheran scholasticismLutheran scholasticism
Lutheran scholasticism was a theological method that gradually developed during the era of Lutheran Orthodoxy. Theologians used the neo-Aristotelian form of presentation, already popular in academia, in their writings and lectures...
developed gradually, especially for the purpose of arguing with the Jesuits, and it was finally established by Johann Gerhard
Johann Gerhard
Johann Gerhard was a Lutheran church leader and Lutheran Scholastic theologian during the period of Orthodoxy.-Biography:He was born in the German city of Quedlinburg...
. Abraham Calovius
Abraham Calovius
Abraham Calovius was a Lutheran theologian, and was one of the champions of Lutheran orthodoxy in the 17th century.-Biography:...
represents the climax of the scholastic
Scholasticism
Scholasticism is a method of critical thought which dominated teaching by the academics of medieval universities in Europe from about 1100–1500, and a program of employing that method in articulating and defending orthodoxy in an increasingly pluralistic context...
paradigm
Paradigm
The word paradigm has been used in science to describe distinct concepts. It comes from Greek "παράδειγμα" , "pattern, example, sample" from the verb "παραδείκνυμι" , "exhibit, represent, expose" and that from "παρά" , "beside, beyond" + "δείκνυμι" , "to show, to point out".The original Greek...
in orthodox Lutheranism. Other orthodox Lutheran theologians were e.g. Martin Chemnitz
Martin Chemnitz
Martin Chemnitz was an eminent second-generation Lutheran theologian, reformer, churchman, and confessor...
, Aegidius Hunnius
Aegidius Hunnius
Aegidius Hunnius the Elder was a Lutheran theologian of the Lutheran scholastic tradition and father of Nicolaus Hunnius....
, Leonhard Hutter
Leonhard Hutter
Leonhard Hutter was a German Lutheran theologian.-Life:He was born at Nellingen near Ulm. From 1581 he studied at the universities of Strasbourg, Leipzig, Heidelberg and Jena...
, Nicolaus Hunnius
Nicolaus Hunnius
Nicolaus Hunnius , the thirdson of Egidius Hunnius, was an orthodox Lutheran theologian of the Lutheran scholastic tradition....
, Jesper Rasmussen Brochmand
Jesper Rasmussen Brochmand
Jesper Rasmussen Brochmand, bishop of Zealand; born at Køge, Zealand, August 5, 1585; died at Copenhagen April 19, 1652.He studied at Herlufsholm, Copenhagen, Leyden, and Franeker; became rector of Herlufsholm academy...
, Salomo Glassius
Salomo Glassius
Salomo Glassius was a German theologian and biblical critic born at Sondershausen, in the principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen.In 1612 he entered the University of Jena. In 1615, with the idea of studying law, he moved to Wittenberg. In consequence of an illness, however, he returned to Jena...
, Johann Hülsemann
Johann Hülsemann
Johann Hülsemann was a German Lutheran theologian. He is known as one of the most prominent Lutheran scholastic opponents of Georgius Calixtus in the Syncretistic Controversy.-Early life and education:...
, Johann Conrad Dannhauer
Johann Conrad Dannhauer
Johann Conrad Dannhauer Orthodox Lutheran theologian and teacher of Spener....
, Valerius Herberger
Valerius Herberger
Valerius Herberger was a German Lutheran preacher and theologian.-Life:He was born at Fraustadt, Silesia . He studied for three years at Freystadt in Silesia , and then entered the University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder...
, Johannes Andreas Quenstedt
Johannes Andreas Quenstedt
Johannes Andreas Quenstedt was a German Lutheran dogmatician in the Lutheran scholastic tradition.Quenstedt was born at Quedlinburg, a nephew of Johann Gerhard...
, Johann Friedrich König
Johann Friedrich König
Johann Friedrich König was a German Lutheran theologian.-References:...
and Johann Wilhelm Baier
Johann Wilhelm Baier
Johann Wilhelm Baier was Lutheran theologian of the seventeenth century in the Lutheran scholastic tradition.He was born at Nuremberg...
.
The theological heritage of Philip Melanchthon rose up again in the Helmstedt
University of Helmstedt
The University of Helmstedt, official Latin name: Academia Julia , was a university in Helmstedt in the Duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel that existed from 1576 until 1810....
School and especially the in theology of Georgius Calixtus, which caused the Syncretistic Controversy. Another theological issue was the Crypto-Kenotic Controversy.
Late orthodoxy: 1685 -1730
Late orthodoxy was torn by influences from RationalismRationalism
In epistemology and in its modern sense, rationalism is "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification" . In more technical terms, it is a method or a theory "in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive"...
and Pietism
Pietism
Pietism was a movement within Lutheranism, lasting from the late 17th century to the mid-18th century and later. It proved to be very influential throughout Protestantism and Anabaptism, inspiring not only Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement, but also Alexander Mack to...
. Orthodoxy produced numerous postil
Postil
Postil or Postilla: a medieval Latin term for a marginal note or a Biblical commentary affixed to a text, being an abbreviation of the phrase post illa verba textus...
s, which were important devotional readings. Along with hymns, they conserved orthodox Lutheran spirituality during this period of heavy influence from Pietism
Pietism
Pietism was a movement within Lutheranism, lasting from the late 17th century to the mid-18th century and later. It proved to be very influential throughout Protestantism and Anabaptism, inspiring not only Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement, but also Alexander Mack to...
and Neology
Neology
Neology , the name given to the rationalist theology of Germany or the rationalisation of the Christian religion. It was preceded by slightly less radical Wolffism....
. Johann Gerhard
Johann Gerhard
Johann Gerhard was a Lutheran church leader and Lutheran Scholastic theologian during the period of Orthodoxy.-Biography:He was born in the German city of Quedlinburg...
, Heinrich Müller
Heinrich Müller (theologian)
Heinrich Müller was a German devotional author, Protestant author of hymns and Lutheran theologian at the University of Rostock....
, and Christian Scriver
Christian Scriver
Christian Scriver was a German Lutheran devotional writer.Scriver was born at Rendsburg and entered the University of Rostock in 1647, and in 1653 was appointed archdeacon at Stendal, whence he was called in 1667 to Magdeburg as pastor of St. James's...
wrote other kinds of devotional literature http://www.stolaf.edu/people/lund/Research.htm.
The last prominent orthodox Lutheran theologian before the Enlightenment and Neology
Neology
Neology , the name given to the rationalist theology of Germany or the rationalisation of the Christian religion. It was preceded by slightly less radical Wolffism....
was David Hollatz
David Hollatz (dogmatician)
David Hollatz, Lutheran dogmatician; born at Wulkow, near Stargard , in Pomerania, 1648; died at Jakobshagen April 17, 1713...
. A later orthodox theologian, Valentin Ernst Löscher
Valentin Ernst Löscher
Valentin Ernst Löscher, was a German orthodox Lutheran theologian....
, took part in a controversy against Pietism
Pietism
Pietism was a movement within Lutheranism, lasting from the late 17th century to the mid-18th century and later. It proved to be very influential throughout Protestantism and Anabaptism, inspiring not only Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement, but also Alexander Mack to...
. Mediaeval mystical
Christian mysticism
Christian mysticism refers to the development of mystical practices and theory within Christianity. It has often been connected to mystical theology, especially in the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions...
tradition continued in the works of Martin Moller
Martin Moller
Martin Moller was a German poet and mystic.- Life :Moller was born in Ließnitz in 1547 and became cantor in Löwenberg in Lower Silesia in 1568. He was ordained in 1572, despite never having been to university, and served as priest and deacon in Kesseldorf, Löwenberg and Sprottau...
, Johann Arndt
Johann Arndt
Johann Arndt was a German Lutheran theologian who wrote several influential books of devotional Christianity...
and Joachim Lütkemann
Joachim Lütkemann
Joachim Lütkemann was a German theologian and writer of devotional literature.-Life:...
. Pietism
Pietism
Pietism was a movement within Lutheranism, lasting from the late 17th century to the mid-18th century and later. It proved to be very influential throughout Protestantism and Anabaptism, inspiring not only Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement, but also Alexander Mack to...
became a rival of orthodoxy but adopted some orthodox devotional literature, such as those of Arndt
Johann Arndt
Johann Arndt was a German Lutheran theologian who wrote several influential books of devotional Christianity...
, Scriver
Christian Scriver
Christian Scriver was a German Lutheran devotional writer.Scriver was born at Rendsburg and entered the University of Rostock in 1647, and in 1653 was appointed archdeacon at Stendal, whence he was called in 1667 to Magdeburg as pastor of St. James's...
and Prätorius, which have often been later mixed with pietistic literature.
Worship and spirituality
Congregations maintained the full MassMass (liturgy)
"Mass" is one of the names by which the sacrament of the Eucharist is called in the Roman Catholic Church: others are "Eucharist", the "Lord's Supper", the "Breaking of Bread", the "Eucharistic assembly ", the "memorial of the Lord's Passion and Resurrection", the "Holy Sacrifice", the "Holy and...
rituals in their normal worship as suggested by Luther. In his Hauptgottesdienst (principal service of worship), Holy Communion was celebrated on each Sunday and festival. The traditional parts of the service were retained and, sometimes, even incense
Incense
Incense is composed of aromatic biotic materials, which release fragrant smoke when burned. The term "incense" refers to the substance itself, rather than to the odor that it produces. It is used in religious ceremonies, ritual purification, aromatherapy, meditation, for creating a mood, and for...
was also used. Services were conducted in vernacular
Vernacular
A vernacular is the native language or native dialect of a specific population, as opposed to a language of wider communication that is not native to the population, such as a national language or lingua franca.- Etymology :The term is not a recent one...
language, but in Germany, Latin was also present in both the Ordinary
Ordinary of the Mass
The ordinary, in Roman Catholic and other Western Christian liturgies, refers to the part of the Eucharist or of the canonical hours that is reasonably constant without regard to the date on which the service is performed...
and Proper
Proper (liturgy)
The Proper is a part of the Christian liturgy that varies according to the date, either representing an observance within the Liturgical Year, or of a particular saint or significant event...
parts of the service. This helped students maintain
their familiarity with the language. As late as the time of Johann Sebastian Bach
Johann Sebastian Bach
Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer, organist, harpsichordist, violist, and violinist whose sacred and secular works for choir, orchestra, and solo instruments drew together the strands of the Baroque period and brought it to its ultimate maturity...
, churches in Leipzig
Leipzig
Leipzig Leipzig has always been a trade city, situated during the time of the Holy Roman Empire at the intersection of the Via Regia and Via Imperii, two important trade routes. At one time, Leipzig was one of the major European centres of learning and culture in fields such as music and publishing...
still heard Polyphonic motets in Latin, Latin Glorias
Gloria in Excelsis Deo
"Gloria in excelsis Deo" is the title and beginning of a hymn known also as the Greater Doxology and the Angelic Hymn. The name is often abbreviated to Gloria in Excelsis or simply Gloria.It is an example of the psalmi idiotici "Gloria in excelsis Deo" (Latin for "Glory to God in the highest")...
, chant
Chant
Chant is the rhythmic speaking or singing of words or sounds, often primarily on one or two pitches called reciting tones. Chants may range from a simple melody involving a limited set of notes to highly complex musical structures Chant (from French chanter) is the rhythmic speaking or singing...
ed Latin collect
Collect
In Christian liturgy, a collect is both a liturgical action and a short, general prayer. In the Middle Ages, the prayer was referred to in Latin as collectio, but in the more ancient sources, as oratio. In English, and in this usage, "collect" is pronounced with the stress on the first syllable...
s and The Creed
Creed
A creed is a statement of belief—usually a statement of faith that describes the beliefs shared by a religious community—and is often recited as part of a religious service. When the statement of faith is longer and polemical, as well as didactic, it is not called a creed but a Confession of faith...
sung in Latin by the choir
Church music flourished and this era is considered as a "golden age" of Lutheran hymnody. Some hymnwriters include Philipp Nicolai
Philipp Nicolai
Philipp Nicolai was a German Lutheran pastor, poet, and composer, author of two famous hymns: Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme and Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern...
, Johann Heermann
Johann Heermann
Johann Heermann was a German poet and hymn-writer. He is commemorated in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church on 26 October with Philipp Nicolai and Paul Gerhardt.- Life :...
, Johann von Rist
Johann von Rist
Johann von Rist was a German poet and dramatist best known for the hymns he wrote.-Life:He was born at Ottensen in Holstein on 8 March 1607; the son of the Lutheran pastor of that place, Caspar Rist...
and Benjamin Schmolck
Benjamin Schmolck
Benjamin Schmolck was a German Lutheran composer of hymns.He was born a pastor's son in Brauchitschdorf , Silesia. After attending the gymnasium in Liegnitz , he studied theology at the University of Leipzig from 1693 to 1697...
in Germany, Haquin Spegel
Haquin Spegel
Haquin Spegel , born Håkan Spegel in Ronneby in south-east Sweden, was a religious author and hymn writer who held several bishop's seats.- Life :...
in Sweden, Thomas Hansen Kingo
Thomas Hansen Kingo
Thomas Hansen Kingo was a Danish bishop, poet and hymn-writer born at Slangerup, near Copenhagen. His work marked the high point of Danish baroque poetry....
in Denmark, Petter Dass
Petter Dass
Petter Dass was a Lutheran clergyman and the foremost Norwegian poet of his generation, writing both baroque hymns and topographical poetry. -Biography:He was born at Northern Herøy , Nordland, Norway...
in Norway, Hallgrímur Pétursson
Hallgrímur Pétursson
Hallgrímur Pétursson was one of Iceland's most famous poets and a minister at Hvalneskirkja and Saurbær in Hvalfjörður. The Hallgrímskirkja in Reykjavík and the Hallgrímskirkja in Saurbær are named after him. He was one of the most influential pastors during the Age of Orthodoxy...
in Iceland and Hemminki Maskulainen in Finland. The most famous orthodox Lutheran hymnwriter is Paul Gerhardt
Paul Gerhardt
Paul Gerhardt was a German hymn writer.-Biography:Gerhardt was born into a middle-class family at Gräfenhainichen, a small town between Halle and Wittenberg. At the age of fifteen, he entered the Fürstenschule in Grimma. The school was known for its pious atmosphere and stern discipline...
. Prominent church musicians and
composers include Michael Praetorius
Michael Praetorius
Michael Praetorius was a German composer, organist, and music theorist. He was one of the most versatile composers of his age, being particularly significant in the development of musical forms based on Protestant hymns, many of which reflect an effort to make better the relationship between...
, Melchior Vulpius
Melchior Vulpius
Melchior Vulpius was a German singer and composer of church music.Vulpius came from a poor craftsman's family. He studied at the local school in Wasungen with Johannes Steuerlein. From 1588, he attended the school in Speyer. After marrying in 1589, he obtained a position at the Gymnasium in...
, Johann Hermann Schein, Heinrich Schütz
Heinrich Schütz
Heinrich Schütz was a German composer and organist, generally regarded as the most important German composer before Johann Sebastian Bach and often considered to be one of the most important composers of the 17th century along with Claudio Monteverdi...
, Johann Crüger
Johann Crüger
Johann Crüger was a German composer of well-known hymns.Crüger was born in Groß Breesen as the son of an innkeeper. He studied at the Lateinschule in Guben until 1613, after which he traveled to Sorau and Breslau and finally to Regensburg, where he received his first musical training from Paulus...
, Dieterich Buxtehude
Dieterich Buxtehude
Dieterich Buxtehude was a German-Danish organist and composer of the Baroque period. His organ works represent a central part of the standard organ repertoire and are frequently performed at recitals and in church services...
and Johann Sebastian Bach
Johann Sebastian Bach
Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer, organist, harpsichordist, violist, and violinist whose sacred and secular works for choir, orchestra, and solo instruments drew together the strands of the Baroque period and brought it to its ultimate maturity...
Generally, the 17th century was a more difficult time than the earlier period of Reformation
Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation was a 16th-century split within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin and other early Protestants. The efforts of the self-described "reformers", who objected to the doctrines, rituals and ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Catholic Church, led...
, due in part to the Thirty Years' War
Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War was fought primarily in what is now Germany, and at various points involved most countries in Europe. It was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history....
. Finland suffered a severe famine
Famine
A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including crop failure, overpopulation, or government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality. Every continent in the world has...
in 1696-1697 as part of what is now called the Little Ice Age
Little Ice Age
The Little Ice Age was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . While not a true ice age, the term was introduced into the scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939...
, and almost one third of the population died. This struggle to survive can often be seen in hymns and devotional writings.
Evaluation
The era of Lutheran orthodoxy is not well known, and it has been very often looked at only through the view of neo-Protestant liberal theologyLiberal Christianity
Liberal Christianity, sometimes called liberal theology, is an umbrella term covering diverse, philosophically and biblically informed religious movements and ideas within Christianity from the late 18th century and onward...
and pietism
Pietism
Pietism was a movement within Lutheranism, lasting from the late 17th century to the mid-18th century and later. It proved to be very influential throughout Protestantism and Anabaptism, inspiring not only Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement, but also Alexander Mack to...
and thus underestimated. Also the wide gap between theology of orthodoxy and rationalism
Rationalism
In epistemology and in its modern sense, rationalism is "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification" . In more technical terms, it is a method or a theory "in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive"...
has sometimes more or less limited later theological neo-Lutheran and confessional Lutheran
Confessional Lutheran
Confessional Lutheran is a name used by certain Lutheran Christians to designate themselves as those who accept the doctrines taught in the Book of Concord of 1580 in their entirety, because they believe them to be completely faithful to the teachings of the Bible...
attempts to understand and restore Lutheran orthodoxy. Most significant theologians of orthodoxy can be said to be Martin Chemnitz
Martin Chemnitz
Martin Chemnitz was an eminent second-generation Lutheran theologian, reformer, churchman, and confessor...
and Johann Gerhard
Johann Gerhard
Johann Gerhard was a Lutheran church leader and Lutheran Scholastic theologian during the period of Orthodoxy.-Biography:He was born in the German city of Quedlinburg...
. Lutheran orthodoxy can also be reflected in such rulers as Ernst I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Altenburg and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
Gustav II Adolf has been widely known in English by his Latinized name Gustavus Adolphus Magnus and variously in historical writings also as Gustavus, or Gustavus the Great, or Gustav Adolph the Great,...
.
External links
- Sketch of the dogmaticians of Lutheran orthodoxy from The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church by Heinrich Schmid
- Lutheran Legacy
- Repristination Press - The Center for the Study of Lutheran Orthodoxy