Literature of Mongolia
Encyclopedia
Mongol literature has been greatly influenced by its nomadic oral traditions. The “three peaks” of Mongol literature, the Secret History of the Mongols, Geser and Jangar, all reflect the age-long tradition of heroic epics on the Eurasian Steppes. Mongol literature has also been a reflection of the society of the given time, its level of political, economic and social development as well as leading intellectual trends.
(630 BC-209 BC) mentioned in the Shiji of Sima Qian
as bordering north of the State of Yan. Their culture was basically nomadic and thus could have included the regular singing of heroic epics
to the accompaniment of early forms of xiqin
and dombra
. This could have been part of a larger oral tradition
that included myths, wisdom sayings and uliger
not much different from present Mongol ones. The Xianbei
(209 BC- 4th century AD), descendants of the Donghu, were said to have had a runic-like script for writing on strips of wood. A 3rd century Xianbei song called the “Song of the Xianbei Brother
(A-kan)” has been preserved in Chinese translation. Many Mongolic words from the Toba
/Tabgach
era (386-534) have come down to us in Chinese transcription, such as ho-lan (many), wu-lien (cloud), e-zhen (owner), a-kan (brother), shi-lou (mountain), chi-na (wolf), ko-po-chen (to hedge), to-po-chen (sole of foot) and ta-wu-sun (dust). However, these are all fragmentary and no substantial written materials from the Xianbei Tabgach have been discovered yet that would deserve the name “literature”.
The Khitan
of the Liao Dynasty
(907-1125) had two scripts, the Large and Small scripts invented in the 920s. Compared to the other Xianbei Mongolic peoples they have left a relatively more substantial amount of written material, including lengthy inscriptions found on rocks and in tombs, that are currently being deciphered and researched. It is thought that the Old Uyghur alphabet
, derived from Syriac, was still used by Nestorians and Buddhists within the major tribes of Mongolia until the time of Genghis Khan
although no work has survived.
as the official script of Genghis Khan’s emerging Mongol Empire
. The Mongol works that survive from this period reflect the prosperity and diversity of the global empire linked together by an efficient communications system. Yet they represent only a fraction of what would have existed then, since the majority of the works from this period has either not been found or has been destroyed amid the convulsions following the fall of the empire. Examples of lost works include the "Altan Debter", "Ikh Tovchoo" and "Great Yassa
".
Significant works and writings in Mongol language from this period include: the Secret History of the Mongols (1240), Stele of Yesunkhei (1225), Text of Guyuk Khan
’s Seal marked on a letter to the Pope (1241), Decree of Ogedei Khan
(1240), Stele of Mongke Khan
(1258), Parchment writings of the Golden Horde
(1240s), Letter of Arghun
to Philip the Fair
(1289), Letter of Oljaitu
to the King of France (1305), Letter of Arghun
to Pope Nicholas IV
(1290), Praise of Mahakala
(1305), Commentary on the Bodhicaryavatara (1312), Banzragch sutra (early 14th century), Subashid sutra (1290s), Poem of Muhammad al-Samarqandi (1290s), Alexander Romance
(13th-early 14th century), New Testament and Psalms translated by Giovanni da Montecorvino (1310s now lost), Altangerel sutra (1330s), Buddhist dedicatory inscription at Tsavchaal Boomt (1345), Book on sacrifice to the Big Dipper (1330s), Achlalt Nom or Xiao Jing
(1307), Edicts of the Yuan Emperors from Kublai Khan
to Toghontemur (1279-1368), Stone inscriptions at Karakorum
(early 14th century), Writings unearthed at Turfan (early 14th century) and Square script inscriptions (1279-1368).
The legal writings of Mongolia in the form of edicts, decrees and laws are generally written in a special type of formulaic language. They might be termed legal literature.
The Secret History of the Mongols, originally written in the Mongol script, is considered the foundational classic of Mongol literature. In addition to its prose sections, the Secret History contains many sections of poetry. “The Wisdom of Genghis”, “The Defeat of the 300 Taijuud by Genghis Khan” and “The Wise Debate of the Orphan Boy with the Nine Generals of Genghis” are considered works of the 14th century that were later copied into historical chronicles of the 17th century.
The Parchment writings of the Golden Horde contain poems expressing the longings of a mother and her far-away son (a soldier) for each other. It is a unique remnant of literature of the common people.
Translation work was most productive during the Yuan dynasty. Choiji Odser produced many excellent translations and commentaries in Mongol of various major Buddhist sutras including the Bodhicaryavatar, the Banzragch sutra and the Twelve Deeds of the Buddha. He also composed poetry like the Praise of Mahakala
as well as the work on Mongol grammar called "Zurkhen tolit". Other prominent lamas of the Yuan dynasty also translated works like the Subashid and the Altangerel sutra (translated by Sharavsenge). The Classic of Filial Piety (Xiao Jing) was translated as well as the New Testament and Psalms.
The short four-line Poem of Muhammad al-Samarqandi about wisdom (“Bilig nigen dalai buyu, Gokhar tendeche gharayu, Bilig-un yoson-i, Bilig-tu kumun medeyu”) and the Mongol fragments of the Alexander Romance are reflective of Mongol contact with the Muslim West. In the mid-13th century a Persian scholar called Iftikhar-eddin Muhammed translated the stories of Kalila and Dimna (of the Panchatantra
) from Persian into Mongol.
the punitive expeditions of the Ming
put a definitive end to the imperial era in Mongolia, which entered into a Dark Age lasting two centuries until the “Third Introduction of Buddhism” in 1576. No significant Mongol work survives from this period, as of present. It is however known that the Mongol script was still taught to children in gers and that some of the Mongol manuscripts found at Olon-sume date back to this period. During this period the relatively advanced political, economic and social structures of the Mongol Empire had collapsed. Karakorum was razed to the ground in 1380 and Mongolia was reduced to a state not much different, if not worse, than that of the 12th century when it was a nomadic version of the European Dark Ages. Within Ming territory, however, works in Mongol were printed, including the Hua-i-i-yu dictionary (1389), the Chinese transcription of the Secret History of the Mongols (1386) and a tantric manual in Chinese, Tibetan, Mongol and Sanskrit (1502).
(1464-1517?/1543?) restored political unity and reestablished the Genghisid line as supreme in Mongolia, the Third (and more thorough) Introduction of Buddhism beginning in 1576 led to further consolidation of unity among the formerly shamanic Mongol tribes. This, and the weakening of the Ming in the late 16th century, allowed the Mongols to enter a period of cultural Renaissance wherein numerous works of literature of many genres were created, including numerous fictional, historical, linguistic, legal and medical works. The Mongolian Renaissance continued under the Qing dynasty
(1691-1911) and the rule of Bogd Khan
(1911-1921). Despite the vast Communist persecutions of the 1930s with the destruction of most monasteries, a great many of these works have survived. The literary Mongolian language that developed during this period is today called Classical Mongol language, while that of the Imperial era and Dark Ages is called pre-Classical Mongol language.
The Kanjur and Tanjur, the translation of which started in the Imperial era, were completed in the Renaissance era. A complete Mongol collection called the "Golden Kanjur" (1628-1629) was published during the reign of Ligdan Khan
in 113 volumes. Later, this version was edited and reprinted in 1718-1720. The Tanjur was finally completed in 1741-1749 and printed in 225 volumes. The oldest written version of the immense epic Geser, the Mongol version decreed by Kangxi, was printed in Beijing in 1716. The "Story of Endurel Khan" was published in 1666 and is a prominent work of fiction. Tsogt Taiji composed his popular poem in 1621 which was later written on a rock surface in 1624. This poem, which still exists, contains reflections about the basic unity in nature and human love.
satirizing the worldly pursuits of the Buddhist clergy as well as the excesses of the nobility. Prince Tokhtokhtor produced a book on practical advice concerning management of the traditional economy. Jimbadorji produced the "Bolor Toli", an encyclopaedia concerning detailed geographical information and observations about different countries, in 1833.
would be the dominant literary style for the following decades. Important pioneers of modern Mongol literature were D. Natsagdorj
(1906-1937), S. Buyannemekh, and Ts. Damdinsüren
. Successful writers from the post-war period include S.Erdene
, Ch.Lodoidamba
, or S. Udval
. Literary topics were often taken from countryside life, from the times of Mongolia's struggle for independence and the communist revolution, or from the Second World War. Many of B.Rinchen
's works deal with Mongolia's older history. One of the most popular poets of the time was dissident poet R.Choinom who served a sentence for his works.
Ancient States Era (630 BC-1204 AD)
The ancestors of the Mongolic peoples are the Bronze-Iron Age DonghuDonghu
Donghu was the name of a Mongolic nomadic tribal confederation that was first recorded from the 7th century BCE and was destroyed by the Xiongnu in 150 BCE. Donghu was later divided into the Wuhuan and Xianbei Confederations, from which the Mongols are derived...
(630 BC-209 BC) mentioned in the Shiji of Sima Qian
Sima Qian
Sima Qian was a Prefect of the Grand Scribes of the Han Dynasty. He is regarded as the father of Chinese historiography for his highly praised work, Records of the Grand Historian , a "Jizhuanti"-style general history of China, covering more than two thousand years from the Yellow Emperor to...
as bordering north of the State of Yan. Their culture was basically nomadic and thus could have included the regular singing of heroic epics
EPICS
The Experimental Physics and Industrial Control System is a software environment used to develop and implement distributed control systems to operate devices such as particle accelerators, telescopes and other large experiments. EPICS also provides SCADA capabilities...
to the accompaniment of early forms of xiqin
Xiqin
The xiqin was a bowed string musical instrument adopted by the Chinese from the Xi, a Central Asian people, in ancient times. It is perhaps the original member of the huqin family of Chinese and Mongolian bowed string instruments; thus, the Erhu and Morin khuur and all similar fiddle instruments...
and dombra
Dombra
The dombura is a long-necked lute popular in Central Asian nations...
. This could have been part of a larger oral tradition
Oral tradition
Oral tradition and oral lore is cultural material and traditions transmitted orally from one generation to another. The messages or testimony are verbally transmitted in speech or song and may take the form, for example, of folktales, sayings, ballads, songs, or chants...
that included myths, wisdom sayings and uliger
Uliger
Üliger , is the general term given to tales and popular myths of the Mongols and Buryats of north-east Asia. They are an important part of the oral traditions among the Buryats and other Siberian tribes, and among other functions, were used to orally transmit Buddhist birth stories...
not much different from present Mongol ones. The Xianbei
Xianbei
The Xianbei were a significant Mongolic nomadic people residing in Manchuria, Inner Mongolia and eastern Mongolia. The title “Khan” was first used among the Xianbei.-Origins:...
(209 BC- 4th century AD), descendants of the Donghu, were said to have had a runic-like script for writing on strips of wood. A 3rd century Xianbei song called the “Song of the Xianbei Brother
Song of the Xianbei Brother
The "Song of the Xianbei Brother" is a popular song of the Xianbei people composed by Murong Wei in 285 AD. It is preserved in Chinese translation and is about the Xianbei chief's regrets for having sent his brother away to the West...
(A-kan)” has been preserved in Chinese translation. Many Mongolic words from the Toba
Toba
Toba may refer to:In Geography:* Lake Toba, a lake in northern Sumatra, Indonesia, and site of the volcanic Toba eruption 75,000 years ago** Toba catastrophe theory, according to which modern human evolution was affected by the Toba eruption...
/Tabgach
Tabgach
Tabgach was a Turkic title for the tribe called in Chinese Tuoba that headed a powerful Xianbei tribe. It is also the Turkic name for the Tang Dynasty in Tangri Bilge's Orkhon inscriptions...
era (386-534) have come down to us in Chinese transcription, such as ho-lan (many), wu-lien (cloud), e-zhen (owner), a-kan (brother), shi-lou (mountain), chi-na (wolf), ko-po-chen (to hedge), to-po-chen (sole of foot) and ta-wu-sun (dust). However, these are all fragmentary and no substantial written materials from the Xianbei Tabgach have been discovered yet that would deserve the name “literature”.
The Khitan
Khitan
The history of the Khitans dates back to the 4th century AD. The Khitan people dominated much of Mongolia and modern Manchuria by the 10th century, under the Liao Dynasty, and eventually collapsed by 1125 ....
of the Liao Dynasty
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
(907-1125) had two scripts, the Large and Small scripts invented in the 920s. Compared to the other Xianbei Mongolic peoples they have left a relatively more substantial amount of written material, including lengthy inscriptions found on rocks and in tombs, that are currently being deciphered and researched. It is thought that the Old Uyghur alphabet
Old Uyghur alphabet
The Old Uyghur alphabet was used for writing the Old Uyghur language, a variety of Old Turkic spoken in the Tarim basin, which is an ancestor of the modern Uyghur language. It was descendant of the Sogdian alphabet, used for texts with Buddhist, Manichaean and Christian content for 700–800 years in...
, derived from Syriac, was still used by Nestorians and Buddhists within the major tribes of Mongolia until the time of Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan , born Temujin and occasionally known by his temple name Taizu , was the founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death....
although no work has survived.
Imperial Era (1204-1368)
This period starts with the adoption in 1204 of the Uyghur-based Mongolian scriptMongolian script
The classical Mongolian script , also known as Uyghurjin, was the first writing system created specifically for the Mongolian language, and was the most successful until the introduction of Cyrillic in 1946...
as the official script of Genghis Khan’s emerging Mongol Empire
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...
. The Mongol works that survive from this period reflect the prosperity and diversity of the global empire linked together by an efficient communications system. Yet they represent only a fraction of what would have existed then, since the majority of the works from this period has either not been found or has been destroyed amid the convulsions following the fall of the empire. Examples of lost works include the "Altan Debter", "Ikh Tovchoo" and "Great Yassa
Yassa
Yassa was a secret written code of law created by Genghis Khan. It was the principal law under the Mongol Empire even though no copies were made available...
".
Significant works and writings in Mongol language from this period include: the Secret History of the Mongols (1240), Stele of Yesunkhei (1225), Text of Guyuk Khan
Güyük Khan
Güyük was the third Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. As the eldest son of Ögedei Khan and a grandson of Genghis Khan, he reigned from 1246 to 1248...
’s Seal marked on a letter to the Pope (1241), Decree of Ogedei Khan
Ögedei Khan
Ögedei Khan, born Ögedei was the third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire by succeeding his father...
(1240), Stele of Mongke Khan
Möngke Khan
Möngke Khan , born Möngke, , was the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from July 1, 1251 – August 11, 1259. He was the first Great Khan from the Toluid line, and made significant reforms to improve the administration of the Empire during his reign...
(1258), Parchment writings of the Golden Horde
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde was a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate that formed the north-western sector of the Mongol Empire...
(1240s), Letter of Arghun
Arghun
Arghun Khan aka Argon was the fourth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate, from 1284 to 1291. He was the son of Abaqa Khan, and like his father, was a devout Buddhist...
to Philip the Fair
Philip IV of France
Philip the Fair was, as Philip IV, King of France from 1285 until his death. He was the husband of Joan I of Navarre, by virtue of which he was, as Philip I, King of Navarre and Count of Champagne from 1284 to 1305.-Youth:A member of the House of Capet, Philip was born at the Palace of...
(1289), Letter of Oljaitu
Öljaitü
Öljeitü, Oljeitu, Olcayto or Uljeitu, Öljaitu, Ölziit , born Muhammad Khodabandeh , was the eighth Ilkhanid dynasty ruler in Iran from 1304 to 1316...
to the King of France (1305), Letter of Arghun
Arghun
Arghun Khan aka Argon was the fourth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate, from 1284 to 1291. He was the son of Abaqa Khan, and like his father, was a devout Buddhist...
to Pope Nicholas IV
Pope Nicholas IV
Pope Nicholas IV , born Girolamo Masci, was Pope from February 22, 1288 to April 4, 1292. A Franciscan friar, he had been legate to the Greeks under Pope Gregory X in 1272, succeeded Bonaventure as Minister General of his religious order in 1274, was made Cardinal Priest of Santa Prassede and...
(1290), Praise of Mahakala
Praise of Mahakala
The Praise of Mahakala is a Mongolian Buddhist poem written in Mongolian script by the Mongolian Sakya scholar Choiji-Odser. The poem is one of the many manuscripts found at Turfan. It dates from around 1305 and shows evidence of woodblock printing during that time...
(1305), Commentary on the Bodhicaryavatara (1312), Banzragch sutra (early 14th century), Subashid sutra (1290s), Poem of Muhammad al-Samarqandi (1290s), Alexander Romance
Alexander Romance
Alexander romance is any of several collections of legends concerning the mythical exploits of Alexander the Great. The earliest version is in Greek, dating to the 3rd century. Several late manuscripts attribute the work to Alexander's court historian Callisthenes, but the historical figure died...
(13th-early 14th century), New Testament and Psalms translated by Giovanni da Montecorvino (1310s now lost), Altangerel sutra (1330s), Buddhist dedicatory inscription at Tsavchaal Boomt (1345), Book on sacrifice to the Big Dipper (1330s), Achlalt Nom or Xiao Jing
Xiao Jing
Xiao Jing or Classic of Filial Piety is a Confucian classic treatise giving advice on filial piety; that is, how to behave towards a senior .-Authorship:...
(1307), Edicts of the Yuan Emperors from Kublai Khan
Kublai Khan
Kublai Khan , born Kublai and also known by the temple name Shizu , was the fifth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from 1260 to 1294 and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China...
to Toghontemur (1279-1368), Stone inscriptions at Karakorum
Karakorum
Karakorum was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, and of the Northern Yuan in the 14-15th century. Its ruins lie in the northwestern corner of the Övörkhangai Province of Mongolia, near today's town of Kharkhorin, and adjacent to the Erdene Zuu monastery...
(early 14th century), Writings unearthed at Turfan (early 14th century) and Square script inscriptions (1279-1368).
The legal writings of Mongolia in the form of edicts, decrees and laws are generally written in a special type of formulaic language. They might be termed legal literature.
The Secret History of the Mongols, originally written in the Mongol script, is considered the foundational classic of Mongol literature. In addition to its prose sections, the Secret History contains many sections of poetry. “The Wisdom of Genghis”, “The Defeat of the 300 Taijuud by Genghis Khan” and “The Wise Debate of the Orphan Boy with the Nine Generals of Genghis” are considered works of the 14th century that were later copied into historical chronicles of the 17th century.
The Parchment writings of the Golden Horde contain poems expressing the longings of a mother and her far-away son (a soldier) for each other. It is a unique remnant of literature of the common people.
Translation work was most productive during the Yuan dynasty. Choiji Odser produced many excellent translations and commentaries in Mongol of various major Buddhist sutras including the Bodhicaryavatar, the Banzragch sutra and the Twelve Deeds of the Buddha. He also composed poetry like the Praise of Mahakala
Praise of Mahakala
The Praise of Mahakala is a Mongolian Buddhist poem written in Mongolian script by the Mongolian Sakya scholar Choiji-Odser. The poem is one of the many manuscripts found at Turfan. It dates from around 1305 and shows evidence of woodblock printing during that time...
as well as the work on Mongol grammar called "Zurkhen tolit". Other prominent lamas of the Yuan dynasty also translated works like the Subashid and the Altangerel sutra (translated by Sharavsenge). The Classic of Filial Piety (Xiao Jing) was translated as well as the New Testament and Psalms.
The short four-line Poem of Muhammad al-Samarqandi about wisdom (“Bilig nigen dalai buyu, Gokhar tendeche gharayu, Bilig-un yoson-i, Bilig-tu kumun medeyu”) and the Mongol fragments of the Alexander Romance are reflective of Mongol contact with the Muslim West. In the mid-13th century a Persian scholar called Iftikhar-eddin Muhammed translated the stories of Kalila and Dimna (of the Panchatantra
Panchatantra
The Panchatantra is an ancient Indian inter-related collection of animal fables in verse and prose, in a frame story format. The original Sanskrit work, which some scholars believe was composed in the 3rd century BCE, is attributed to Vishnu Sharma...
) from Persian into Mongol.
Dark Ages (1368-1576)
After the fall of the Yuan dynastyYuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
the punitive expeditions of the Ming
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
put a definitive end to the imperial era in Mongolia, which entered into a Dark Age lasting two centuries until the “Third Introduction of Buddhism” in 1576. No significant Mongol work survives from this period, as of present. It is however known that the Mongol script was still taught to children in gers and that some of the Mongol manuscripts found at Olon-sume date back to this period. During this period the relatively advanced political, economic and social structures of the Mongol Empire had collapsed. Karakorum was razed to the ground in 1380 and Mongolia was reduced to a state not much different, if not worse, than that of the 12th century when it was a nomadic version of the European Dark Ages. Within Ming territory, however, works in Mongol were printed, including the Hua-i-i-yu dictionary (1389), the Chinese transcription of the Secret History of the Mongols (1386) and a tantric manual in Chinese, Tibetan, Mongol and Sanskrit (1502).
Renaissance (1576-late 1700s)
After Dayan KhanDayan Khan
Dayan Khan , was a Mongol khan who reunited the Mongols under Chinggisid supremacy in the Northern Yuan Dynasty in Mongolia...
(1464-1517?/1543?) restored political unity and reestablished the Genghisid line as supreme in Mongolia, the Third (and more thorough) Introduction of Buddhism beginning in 1576 led to further consolidation of unity among the formerly shamanic Mongol tribes. This, and the weakening of the Ming in the late 16th century, allowed the Mongols to enter a period of cultural Renaissance wherein numerous works of literature of many genres were created, including numerous fictional, historical, linguistic, legal and medical works. The Mongolian Renaissance continued under the Qing dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
(1691-1911) and the rule of Bogd Khan
Bogd Khan
The Bogd Khan was enthroned as the Great Khaan of Mongolia on 29 December 1911, when Outer Mongolia declared independence from the Qing Dynasty after the Xinhai Revolution. He was born in the Kham region of eastern Tibet, today's Sichuan province of the People's Republic of China...
(1911-1921). Despite the vast Communist persecutions of the 1930s with the destruction of most monasteries, a great many of these works have survived. The literary Mongolian language that developed during this period is today called Classical Mongol language, while that of the Imperial era and Dark Ages is called pre-Classical Mongol language.
The Kanjur and Tanjur, the translation of which started in the Imperial era, were completed in the Renaissance era. A complete Mongol collection called the "Golden Kanjur" (1628-1629) was published during the reign of Ligdan Khan
Ligdan Khan
Ligdan Khutugtu Khan was the last in the Borjigin clan of Mongol Khans who ruled the Mongols from Chakhar. His unpopular reign generated violent opposition due to his harsh restrictions over the Mongols...
in 113 volumes. Later, this version was edited and reprinted in 1718-1720. The Tanjur was finally completed in 1741-1749 and printed in 225 volumes. The oldest written version of the immense epic Geser, the Mongol version decreed by Kangxi, was printed in Beijing in 1716. The "Story of Endurel Khan" was published in 1666 and is a prominent work of fiction. Tsogt Taiji composed his popular poem in 1621 which was later written on a rock surface in 1624. This poem, which still exists, contains reflections about the basic unity in nature and human love.
Post-Renaissance (late 1700s-1921)
In the 19th century, there was a trend of critical thinking with Injanashi and DanzanravjaaDanzanravjaa
Dulduityn Danzanravjaa was a prominent Mongolian writer, composer, painter and medic and the the Fifth Noyon Khutagt, the Lama of the Gobi...
satirizing the worldly pursuits of the Buddhist clergy as well as the excesses of the nobility. Prince Tokhtokhtor produced a book on practical advice concerning management of the traditional economy. Jimbadorji produced the "Bolor Toli", an encyclopaedia concerning detailed geographical information and observations about different countries, in 1833.
Revolutionary literature and "Socialist realism" (1921-1989)
In 1921 the establishment of the Provisional Government of Sukhbaatar led to a radical change in Mongol society as the country abruptly entered the modern, industrial world. The close alignment with the Soviet Union meant that socialist realismSocialist realism
Socialist realism is a style of realistic art which was developed in the Soviet Union and became a dominant style in other communist countries. Socialist realism is a teleologically-oriented style having its purpose the furtherance of the goals of socialism and communism...
would be the dominant literary style for the following decades. Important pioneers of modern Mongol literature were D. Natsagdorj
Dashdorjiin Natsagdorj
Borjigin Dashdorjiin Natsagdorj , was a Mongolian poet, writer, and playwright, and founder of the Mongolian Writer's Union. He is considered one of the founding fathers of modern Mongolian literature and Mongolia's first "classic Socialist" writer.- Life :...
(1906-1937), S. Buyannemekh, and Ts. Damdinsüren
Tsendiin Damdinsüren
Tsendiin Damdinsüren was a Mongolian writer and linguist. He wrote the text to one version of the national Anthem of Mongolia.- Life :Damdinsüren was born in Mongolia 1908, in what is today the Dornod Aimag ....
. Successful writers from the post-war period include S.Erdene
Sengiin Erdene
Sengiin Erdene is a well-known Mongolian novelist and writer.- Biography :Sengiin Erdene was born on December 7, 1929 in Binder, Khentii Province...
, Ch.Lodoidamba
Chadraabalyn Lodoidamba
Chadraabalyn Lodoidamba was a Mongolian writer.He was born in Govi-Altai Province in 1917. In 1954 he graduated from National University of Mongolia, the same year that his first story "Malgaitai Chono" was published....
, or S. Udval
Sonomyn Udval
Sonomyn Udval was a Mongolian women's leader, politician and writer. Hailing from Dashinchilen sum of Bulgan Province, she was chairwoman of the Central Council of the Mongolian Trade Unions from 1956 until 1958, the first secretary and later chair of the Mongolian Writer's Union,...
. Literary topics were often taken from countryside life, from the times of Mongolia's struggle for independence and the communist revolution, or from the Second World War. Many of B.Rinchen
Byambyn Rinchen
Yünsiyebü Byambyn Rinchen was one of the founders of modern Mongolian literature, a translator of literature and a scientist in various areas of Mongolian studies, especially linguistics.- Descent :Like Dashdorjiin Natsagdorj, he was a direct descendant of Genghis Khan on both his...
's works deal with Mongolia's older history. One of the most popular poets of the time was dissident poet R.Choinom who served a sentence for his works.