Libyan literature
Encyclopedia
Libyan literature has its roots in Antiquity
, but contemporary Libya
n writing draws on a variety of influences.
The Arab Renaissance (Al-Nahda) of the late 19th and early 20th centuries did not reach Libya as early as other Arab lands, and Libyans contributed little to its initial development. However, Libya at this time developed its own literary tradition, centred on oral poetry
, much of which expressed the suffering brought about by the Italian colonial period
. MOst of Libya's early literature was written in the east, in the cities of Benghazi
and Derna: particularly Benghazi
, because of its importance as an early Libyan capital and influence of the universities present there. They were also the urban areas closest to Cairo and Alexandria - uncontested areas of Arab culture at the time. Even today, most writers - despite being spread throughout the country, trace their inspiration to eastern, rather than western, Libya.
Libyan literature has historically been very politicized. The Libya
n literary movement can be traced to the Italian occupation
of the early 20th century. Sulaiman al-Barouni
, an important figure of the Libyan resistance to the Italian occupation, wrote the first book of Libyan poetry as well as publishing a newspaper called The Muslim Lion.
After the Italian
defeat in World War II
, the focus of Libyan literature shifted to the fight for independence. The 1960s were a tumultuous decade for Libya, and this is reflected in the works of Libyan writers. Social change, the distribution of oil-wealth and the Six-Day War
were a few of the most discussed topics. Following the 1969 coup d'etat which brought Muammar Gaddafi
to power, the government established the Union of Libyan Writers. Thereafter, literature in the country took a much less antagonistic approach towards the government, more often supporting government policies than opposing.
As very little Libyan literature has been translated, few Libyan authors have received much attention outside of the Arab World
. Possibly Libya's best-known writer, Ibrahim Al-Koni
, is all but unknown outside the Arab-speaking world.
Italian policy of the time was to suppress indigenous Libyan cultural aspirations - therefore quelling any publications showing local literary influence. Perhaps the only publication of the time that had any Libyan roots was the Italian financed, Libya Al-Mussawar (Illustrated Libya). While beginning as Italian propaganda, the magazine included work by Wahbi Bouri, considered the father of Libyan short stories.
Libyan poet Khaled Mattawa
remarks:was primarily associated with politics
Many of Aesop
's fables have been classified as part of the 'Libyan tales' genre in literary tradition although some scholars argue that the term "Libya" was used to describe works of Non-Egyption territories in ancient Greece
.
, Ibrahim Fagih, and Bashir Hashimi who all wrote with a sense of optimism reflecting the spirit of independence
Libyan literature began to bloom in the late 1960s, with the writings of Sadeq al-Neihum, Khalifa al-Fakhri, Kamel Maghur
(prose
), Muhammad al-Shaltami and Ali al-Regeie (poetry
). Many Libyan writers of the 1960s adhered to nationalist
, socialist
and generally progressive
views. Some writers also produced works resenting the entry of American oil companies as an attack on their country. This period also simultaneaously began to cast Americans (with their oil companies) and Jews (because of Israel's foundation in 1948) as outsiders as well as occasionally in the positive light of facilitators.
to power. In the mid-1970s, the new government set up a single publishing house, and authors were required to write in support of the authorities. Those who refused were imprisoned, emigrated, or ceased writing. Authors like Kamel Maghur
and Ahmed Fagih who had dominated the cultural landscape of the 1950s and 1960s continued to be the source of most literary production.
.
Classical antiquity
Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world...
, but contemporary Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
n writing draws on a variety of influences.
The Arab Renaissance (Al-Nahda) of the late 19th and early 20th centuries did not reach Libya as early as other Arab lands, and Libyans contributed little to its initial development. However, Libya at this time developed its own literary tradition, centred on oral poetry
Oral poetry
Oral poetry can be defined in various ways. A strict definition would include only poetry that is composed and transmitted without any aid of writing. However, the complex relationships between written and spoken literature in some societies can make this definition hard to maintain, and oral...
, much of which expressed the suffering brought about by the Italian colonial period
History of Libya as Italian Colony
The History of Libya as an Italian colony began in the 1910s and lasted until February 1947, when Italy officially lost all the colonies of the former Italian Empire.-First years:...
. MOst of Libya's early literature was written in the east, in the cities of Benghazi
Benghazi
Benghazi is the second largest city in Libya, the main city of the Cyrenaica region , and the former provisional capital of the National Transitional Council. The wider metropolitan area is also a district of Libya...
and Derna: particularly Benghazi
Benghazi
Benghazi is the second largest city in Libya, the main city of the Cyrenaica region , and the former provisional capital of the National Transitional Council. The wider metropolitan area is also a district of Libya...
, because of its importance as an early Libyan capital and influence of the universities present there. They were also the urban areas closest to Cairo and Alexandria - uncontested areas of Arab culture at the time. Even today, most writers - despite being spread throughout the country, trace their inspiration to eastern, rather than western, Libya.
Libyan literature has historically been very politicized. The Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
n literary movement can be traced to the Italian occupation
History of Libya as Italian Colony
The History of Libya as an Italian colony began in the 1910s and lasted until February 1947, when Italy officially lost all the colonies of the former Italian Empire.-First years:...
of the early 20th century. Sulaiman al-Barouni
Sulaiman al-Barouni
Sulaiman al-Barouni was ruler of Tripolitania and part of the resistance movement against the Italian military occupation of Libya from 1911 to 1916. He was a Berber, originally from the Nafusa region in western Libya...
, an important figure of the Libyan resistance to the Italian occupation, wrote the first book of Libyan poetry as well as publishing a newspaper called The Muslim Lion.
After the Italian
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
defeat in World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, the focus of Libyan literature shifted to the fight for independence. The 1960s were a tumultuous decade for Libya, and this is reflected in the works of Libyan writers. Social change, the distribution of oil-wealth and the Six-Day War
Six-Day War
The Six-Day War , also known as the June War, 1967 Arab-Israeli War, or Third Arab-Israeli War, was fought between June 5 and 10, 1967, by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt , Jordan, and Syria...
were a few of the most discussed topics. Following the 1969 coup d'etat which brought Muammar Gaddafi
Muammar Gaddafi
Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar Gaddafi or "September 1942" 20 October 2011), commonly known as Muammar Gaddafi or Colonel Gaddafi, was the official ruler of the Libyan Arab Republic from 1969 to 1977 and then the "Brother Leader" of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya from 1977 to 2011.He seized power in a...
to power, the government established the Union of Libyan Writers. Thereafter, literature in the country took a much less antagonistic approach towards the government, more often supporting government policies than opposing.
As very little Libyan literature has been translated, few Libyan authors have received much attention outside of the Arab World
Arab world
The Arab world refers to Arabic-speaking states, territories and populations in North Africa, Western Asia and elsewhere.The standard definition of the Arab world comprises the 22 states and territories of the Arab League stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the...
. Possibly Libya's best-known writer, Ibrahim Al-Koni
Ibrahim Al-Koni
Ibrahim Al-Koni is a Libyan writer and one of the most prolific Arabic novelists.Born in 1948 in the Fezzan Region, Ibrahim al-Koni was brought up on the tradition of the Tuareg, popularly known as "the veiled men" or "the blue men." Mythological elements, spiritual quest and existential...
, is all but unknown outside the Arab-speaking world.
Early Libyan works
Prior to Italian invasion, Libyan literary journals were primarily concerned with politics. Journals of this period included Al-Asr Al Fadiod (The New Age) in 1910 and Al Taragrim (The Translations) in 1897. It wasn't until the brutality of the Italian invasion that Libyan consciousness exposed itself in the form of the short story. Wahbi Bouri argues in the introduction of Al-Bawakir (The Vanguard), a collection of short stories he wrote from 1930 to 1960, that the Libyan short story was born in reaction to Italian occupation and Egyptian literary renaissance in Cairo and Alexandria. Specifically, copies of powems such as Benghazi the Eternal helped to sustain Libyan resistance.Italian policy of the time was to suppress indigenous Libyan cultural aspirations - therefore quelling any publications showing local literary influence. Perhaps the only publication of the time that had any Libyan roots was the Italian financed, Libya Al-Mussawar (Illustrated Libya). While beginning as Italian propaganda, the magazine included work by Wahbi Bouri, considered the father of Libyan short stories.
Libyan poet Khaled Mattawa
Khaled Mattawa
Khaled Mattawa is a Libyan poet, and a renowned Arab-American writer, he is also a leading literary translator, focusing on translating Arabic poetry into English...
remarks:was primarily associated with politics
- "Against claims that Libya has a limited body of literature, classicists may be quick to note that ancient Greek lyric poet CallimachusCallimachusCallimachus was a native of the Greek colony of Cyrene, Libya. He was a noted poet, critic and scholar at the Library of Alexandria and enjoyed the patronage of the Egyptian–Greek Pharaohs Ptolemy II Philadelphus and Ptolemy III Euergetes...
and the exquisite prose stylist Sinesius were Libyan. But students of Libyan history and literature will note a vast time gap between those ancient luminaries and the writers of today. [...] Libya has historically made a limited contribution to Arab literature".
Many of Aesop
Aesop
Aesop was a Greek writer credited with a number of popular fables. Older spellings of his name have included Esop and Isope. Although his existence remains uncertain and no writings by him survive, numerous tales credited to him were gathered across the centuries and in many languages in a...
's fables have been classified as part of the 'Libyan tales' genre in literary tradition although some scholars argue that the term "Libya" was used to describe works of Non-Egyption territories in ancient Greece
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
.
1950 -1960
With the withdraw of European forces, a period of optimism was born ushered in by the return of educated Libyans who had lived in exile in Egypt, Syria, and Lebanon. Among the 1950s generation were famed writers Kamel MaghurKamel Maghur
Kamel Hassan Maghur g was a Libyan lawyer and short book writer. He obtained his law Degree in Cairo, Egypt, in 1957.-Biography:...
, Ibrahim Fagih, and Bashir Hashimi who all wrote with a sense of optimism reflecting the spirit of independence
Libyan literature began to bloom in the late 1960s, with the writings of Sadeq al-Neihum, Khalifa al-Fakhri, Kamel Maghur
Kamel Maghur
Kamel Hassan Maghur g was a Libyan lawyer and short book writer. He obtained his law Degree in Cairo, Egypt, in 1957.-Biography:...
(prose
Prose
Prose is the most typical form of written language, applying ordinary grammatical structure and natural flow of speech rather than rhythmic structure...
), Muhammad al-Shaltami and Ali al-Regeie (poetry
Poetry
Poetry is a form of literary art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its apparent meaning...
). Many Libyan writers of the 1960s adhered to nationalist
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
, socialist
Socialism
Socialism is an economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and cooperative management of the economy; or a political philosophy advocating such a system. "Social ownership" may refer to any one of, or a combination of, the following: cooperative enterprises,...
and generally progressive
Progressivism
Progressivism is an umbrella term for a political ideology advocating or favoring social, political, and economic reform or changes. Progressivism is often viewed by some conservatives, constitutionalists, and libertarians to be in opposition to conservative or reactionary ideologies.The...
views. Some writers also produced works resenting the entry of American oil companies as an attack on their country. This period also simultaneaously began to cast Americans (with their oil companies) and Jews (because of Israel's foundation in 1948) as outsiders as well as occasionally in the positive light of facilitators.
1969-1986, Revolutionary Years
In 1969, a military coup brought Muammar GaddafiMuammar Gaddafi
Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar Gaddafi or "September 1942" 20 October 2011), commonly known as Muammar Gaddafi or Colonel Gaddafi, was the official ruler of the Libyan Arab Republic from 1969 to 1977 and then the "Brother Leader" of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya from 1977 to 2011.He seized power in a...
to power. In the mid-1970s, the new government set up a single publishing house, and authors were required to write in support of the authorities. Those who refused were imprisoned, emigrated, or ceased writing. Authors like Kamel Maghur
Kamel Maghur
Kamel Hassan Maghur g was a Libyan lawyer and short book writer. He obtained his law Degree in Cairo, Egypt, in 1957.-Biography:...
and Ahmed Fagih who had dominated the cultural landscape of the 1950s and 1960s continued to be the source of most literary production.
The New Libyan writers: Today
Censorship laws were loosened, but not abolished, in the early 1990s, resulting in a literary renewal. Some measure of dissent is expressed in contemporary literature published within Libya, but books remain censored and self-censored to a certain extent. In 2006 with the opening of Libya to the United States the nature of the novel changed. A reasonably large number of Libyan Writers today seem to be women in their late twenties and early thirties including Laila Neihoum, Najwa Ben Shetwan, and Maryam SalamaMaryam Salama
Maryam Ahmed Salama is a Libyan writer and poet born in Tripoli. She received her undergraduate degree from the Department of Literature and Culture at al-Fateh University in 1987 and works currently in the field of translation with an emphasis on historical studies. Her works of prose and poetry...
.
Themes
Contemporary Libyan literature is influenced by "local lore, North African and Eastern Mediterranean Arab literatures, and world literature at large" (K. Mattawa). Émigré writers have also contributed significantly to Libyan literature, and include Ibrahim Al-Kouni, Ahmad Al-Faqih and Sadeq al-Neihum.Sources
- Khaled MattawaKhaled MattawaKhaled Mattawa is a Libyan poet, and a renowned Arab-American writer, he is also a leading literary translator, focusing on translating Arabic poetry into English...
, "Libya", in Literature from the "Axis of Evil"Literature from the "Axis of Evil"Literature from the "Axis of Evil" is an anthology of short stories, poems and excerpts from novels by twenty writers from seven countries, translated into English , and published by Words Without Borders in 2006....
(a Words Without BordersWords Without BordersWords Without Borders is an international magazine opened to international exchange through translation, publication, and promotion of the world’s best writing and authors who are not easily accessible to English-speaking readers....
anthology), ISBN 978-1-59558-205-8, 2006, pp. 225–228.