Langit Makin Mendung
Encyclopedia
"Langit Makin Mendung" is a controversial Indonesian short story. Published in Sastra magazine under the pen name Kipandjikusmin in August 1968, it tells the story of Muhammad
descending to Earth with the angel Gabriel
to investigate the decreasing number of Muslims entering heaven
, only to find that Muslims in Indonesia have begun fornicating, drinking alcohol, waging war on Muslims, and otherwise gone against the tenets of Islam, poisoned by the Sukarno
government's ideology combining nationalism, religion, and communism, or nasakom
. Unable to do anything to stop the rampant sinning, Muhammad and Gabriel watch the political maneuvering, crime, and famine in Jakarta
in the form of eagles.
Upon its publication, "Langit Makin Mendung" drew heavy criticism for its depictions of Allah
, Muhammad, and Gabriel, leading to it being banned in North Sumatra
and Sastra offices in Jakarta being attacked. Despite published apologies from the writer and publisher, the head editor of Sastra, HB Jassin
, was tried for blasphemy; he was later convicted to a one-year suspended sentence
. Critical views of the story vary; the story has been compared to Dante
's Divine Comedy for its depiction of a man on a spiritual quest with a spiritual companion, yet criticized for depicting Allah, Muhammad, and Gabriel in a negative light. The legal case itself has been subject to debate, with both sides arguing freedom of expression and the scope of imagination.
and in modern times. However, it has been used to justify and promote political positions. The Dutch colonial government minimized the role of the religious leaders, the kyai
and ulama
, in an attempt to prevent them using their influence to lead resistance. Modern rulers have used it to "maintain the status quo", while those pushing for change use Islam as a means for justice or other political ends. This has led to a general fragmentation.
During the early 1960s then-President Sukarno
declared a new state ideology of Nasakom
, which stood for Nasionalisme, Agama, dan Komunisme (Nationalism, Religion, and Communism), which would complement the existing policy of Pancasila. This declaration, viewed as proof of increasing Indonesian Communist Party (Partai Komunis Indonesia, or PKI) power, led to conflict between the PKI and the military. In the midst of an escalating confrontation with Malaysia, Sukarno demoted General Nasution
, Commander of the Army, and promoted Ahmad Yani
, while the PKI spread rumours that a CIA-sponsored board of generals (Dewan Jenderal) were plotting against the government, using the Gilchrist Document
as proof. Eventually, a coup
thought to have been sponsored by the PKI killed six generals, leading to the massacre of suspected communists and the fall of Sukarno's government.
and the other prophets of Islam
, bored of living in jannah
(heaven) and weary of singing the praises of Allah
, request permission to return to Earth. Disappointed by the prophets' request, Allah calls on Muhammad to explain why he wishes to return, as Allah had already granted him many things. Muhammad replies that he wishes to conduct research, to discover why so few Muslims were coming to heaven. Allah, after removing his glasses, responds that they had been poisoned by Sukarno
's policy of Nasakom
and grants permission.
After much fanfare, Muhammad departs jannah airport, riding a buraq
, or winged horse. The Archangel Gabriel
accompanies him. On the way, they encounter a Soviet spacecraft. Hearing that they are infidels
, Muhammad approaches to investigate, only to crash into the spacecraft, obliterating it and the buraq and killing the three cosmonauts; Muhammad and Gabriel are able to catch a cloud. Later, they pass Jakarta
, which Gabriel describes as the most sinful place on Earth. Angered by Gabriel's statement that less than a million of Indonesia's 90 million Muslims
are true believers, as well as the fact that it is the birthplace of Nasakom, Muhammad declares that Islam will never die and waits on the cloud.
Meanwhile, in Jakarta, an epidemic of the flu is underway. Among those who fall ill is President Sukarno, who writes to Chairman Mao Zedong
to request some doctors. Mao sends doctors, who give Sukarno poison to paralyze him and aid the 30 September Movement
in overthrowing the government. The slow acting poison causes Sukarno to faint after he and his ministers have a large party with haram
events, including the consumption of pork and frog and zina (sex outside of marriage).
Muhammad and Gabriel, having transformed into eagles to observe Jakarta, see prostitution, adultery, theft, and drinking. Muhammad is shocked that zina and theft continue unabated, calling for Gabriel to help him stone
the adulterers and cut the hands off the thieves. Gabriel replies that there are not enough stones for the adulterers, and the swords have been replaced by guns bought by the "infidel" Soviets and Americans who "worship dollars". They later see a minister, referred to only as Togog attempting to use the Gilchrist Document
to overthrow Sukarno. Muhammad gives up on Indonesia, planning to install television in jannah.
Eventually, Sukarno recovers from the poison and is told about the Gilchrist Document, also being told that the Chinese are reneging on their agreement to supply nuclear weapons for Indonesia's confrontation with Malaysia. Sukarno uses the Gilchrist Document to spread rumours and distrust among the populace, demoting his commander of the military, while the Chinese ambassador is sent home.
, head editor of Sastra, said that Kipandjikusmin had been born to a Muslim family but educated in a Catholic junior school prior to being sent to a naval academy; Jassin noted that this Catholic education, with literature
which personifies God and angels, may have influenced his writing style. Another influence was Javanese wayang
, or shadow puppets, with stories which traditionally have a hierarchy of anthropomorphic deities. Jassin also notes influences from the culture of the Guided Democracy era, evidenced from terms like sputnik and the social commentary, with strong condemnation of prostitution in Indonesia
and Sukarno's Nasakom.
Kipandjikusmin later told Ekspres magazine that his goal in writing the short story was to expose the corruption in Sukarno's government, focusing on the religious leaders who had agreed with Nasakom when it was politically expedient to do so, yet turned against the PKI when the party was hunted and its members killed. He also admitted the influences proposed by Jassin, writing that he had often though of the Catholic heaven as being similar to the Javanese Kahyangan, with God being similar to Batara Guru
, with his depictions of Muhammad and Gabriel transforming into eagles being influenced by images of Christ as the Lamb of God
. It was originally meant to be a serial, with the second instalment having already been received by Jassin when the controversy began.
, in August 1968, under the pen name Kipandjikusmin. It became instantly controversial, with Indonesian Muslims considering it blasphemous and an insult to Islam
. Among the points of contention were the anthropomorphic personification of Allah, as well as the "less than respectful" treatment of Muhammad and other Islamic figures. It was banned in North Sumatra
on 12 October and groups of young Muslims attacked Sastra headquarters in Jakarta. After threats of prosecution, Jassin and his co-editor Rachman issued a public apology; despite this, the magazine was banned. On 22 or 25 October 1968, Kipandjikusmin followed suit, with a a statement in Kami.
In April 1969 or February 1970, the High Prosectuor's office in Medan
filed charges against Jassin, charging him with blasphemy after he was unwilling to divulge Kipandjikusmin's true name. At trial, Jassin argued that, as the story was a product of the author's imagination, it should not be considered an insult to Islam; he also cited physical descriptions of Allah from the Quran and Sufi literature, as well as the writer's Christian influences. A witness for the prosecution, noted ulama and writer Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah
(Hamka), testified that a depiction of Allah wearing glasses implied that Allah was imperfect, as opposed to the personifications cited by Jassin, which were based on man's love for Allah. Hamka later stated that nobody had been able to incite hatred against Muhammad like Kipandjikusmin since the Crusades
. Jassin was sentenced to a one year suspended sentence
.
and not representative of their counterparts. He further argues that "Langit Makin Mendung" is not written as an insult, but social criticism
on perceived mistakes and corruption during the Sukarno period. He draws on parallels between "Langit Makin Mendung", Dante
's Divine Comedy, and Allama Muhammad Iqbal's Javid Nama
, focusing on the journey of a person and a guide, with objections being raised due to readers identifying imagination with religion.
Another critic, Bahrum Rangkuti, wrote that "Langit Makin Mendung" had to be judged based on Kipandjikusmin's intentions, which he interpreted as ridding Islam of Nasakom, which he saw as not being compatible. He noted that the Muslims criticized in the story are those who act in ways that are not permitted in Islam, such as drinking and committing zina, while other targets include inept leadership and corruption. Like Jassin, Rangkuti notes numerous instances of Allah being personified in the Quran and hadith
s; he views the personification of Allah in "Langit Makin Mendung" as an attempt to draw Muslims closer to Allah.
Sukarsono argues that "Langit Makin Mendung" would have been a "monumental" critique, with a good description of degeneration and immorality in the early 1960s, if written during Sukarno's regime, like Machiavelli's The Prince
was for its time, but as it was released in the New Order it lost some of its impact. He notes that in most cases the personification of Allah as being compatible with Islamic views of Allah. However, Allah's donning of gold spectacles is seen as being in contradiction to the tenets of Islam.
An opposing view, offered by Indonesian literary critic M. Jusuf Lubis, is that "Langit Makin Mendung", as it is based on actual events and dogma, including Muhammad's night journey
. He rejects the view that the controversy arose from a misunderstanding of the story, writing that Indonesian Muslims reacted because they will not accept works that they see as denying the existence of Allah or comparing Pancasila to Nasakom. He notes that Jassin is inconsistent in his defense, calling the representations of Allah, Muhammad, and Gabriel figments of the author's imagination, but citing Sukarno and Nasakom as influences.
is also mentioned.
Another view is that the prosecution's actions were justified, pointing to the obscurity of the press laws, as well as the intent to publish, indicated by the story's prominent placement in the magazine. In response to arguments that the banning of Sastra was a violation of the right to freedom of speech, Sju'bah Asa argues that the public and prosecutors have the same right, which can exercised through protests or legal action. Poet Taufiq Ismail notes that most protests against the prosecution's actions were for their motion to ban Sastra, a reputable and respected publication, which does not indicate that "Langit Makin Mendung" was being supported.
Muhammad
Muhammad |ligature]] at U+FDF4 ;Arabic pronunciation varies regionally; the first vowel ranges from ~~; the second and the last vowel: ~~~. There are dialects which have no stress. In Egypt, it is pronounced not in religious contexts...
descending to Earth with the angel Gabriel
Gabriel
In Abrahamic religions, Gabriel is an Archangel who typically serves as a messenger to humans from God.He first appears in the Book of Daniel, delivering explanations of Daniel's visions. In the Gospel of Luke Gabriel foretells the births of both John the Baptist and of Jesus...
to investigate the decreasing number of Muslims entering heaven
Jannah
Jannah , is the Islamic conception of paradise. The Arabic word Jannah is a shortened version meaning simply "Garden". According to Islamic eschatology, after death, one will reside in the grave until the appointed resurrection on . Muslims believe that the treatment of the individual in the life...
, only to find that Muslims in Indonesia have begun fornicating, drinking alcohol, waging war on Muslims, and otherwise gone against the tenets of Islam, poisoned by the Sukarno
Sukarno
Sukarno, born Kusno Sosrodihardjo was the first President of Indonesia.Sukarno was the leader of his country's struggle for independence from the Netherlands and was Indonesia's first President from 1945 to 1967...
government's ideology combining nationalism, religion, and communism, or nasakom
Nasakom
Nasakom was a political concept during the Sukarno presidency in Indonesia. It is an acronym based on the Indonesian words NASionalisme , Agama , and KOMunisme ....
. Unable to do anything to stop the rampant sinning, Muhammad and Gabriel watch the political maneuvering, crime, and famine in Jakarta
Jakarta
Jakarta is the capital and largest city of Indonesia. Officially known as the Special Capital Territory of Jakarta, it is located on the northwest coast of Java, has an area of , and a population of 9,580,000. Jakarta is the country's economic, cultural and political centre...
in the form of eagles.
Upon its publication, "Langit Makin Mendung" drew heavy criticism for its depictions of Allah
Allah
Allah is a word for God used in the context of Islam. In Arabic, the word means simply "God". It is used primarily by Muslims and Bahá'ís, and often, albeit not exclusively, used by Arabic-speaking Eastern Catholic Christians, Maltese Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, Mizrahi Jews and...
, Muhammad, and Gabriel, leading to it being banned in North Sumatra
North Sumatra
North Sumatra is a province of Indonesia on the Sumatra island. Its capital is Medan. It is the most populous Indonesian province outside of Java. It is slightly larger than Sri Lanka in area.- Geography and population :...
and Sastra offices in Jakarta being attacked. Despite published apologies from the writer and publisher, the head editor of Sastra, HB Jassin
HB Jassin
Hans Bague Jassin , better known as HB Jassin, was an Indonesian literary critic, documentarian, and professor. Born in Gorontalo to a bibliophilic petroleum company employee, Jassin began reading while still in elementary school, later writing published reviews before finishing high school...
, was tried for blasphemy; he was later convicted to a one-year suspended sentence
Suspended sentence
A suspended sentence is a legal term for a judge's delaying of a defendant's serving of a sentence after they have been found guilty, in order to allow the defendant to perform a period of probation...
. Critical views of the story vary; the story has been compared to Dante
DANTE
Delivery of Advanced Network Technology to Europe is a not-for-profit organisation that plans, builds and operates the international networks that interconnect the various national research and education networks in Europe and surrounding regions...
's Divine Comedy for its depiction of a man on a spiritual quest with a spiritual companion, yet criticized for depicting Allah, Muhammad, and Gabriel in a negative light. The legal case itself has been subject to debate, with both sides arguing freedom of expression and the scope of imagination.
Background
Indonesia is the world's largest majority-Muslim country. This has had a large influence on the development of Indonesia, both in its national revolutionIndonesian National Revolution
The Indonesian National Revolution or Indonesian War of Independence was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between Indonesia and the Dutch Empire, and an internal social revolution...
and in modern times. However, it has been used to justify and promote political positions. The Dutch colonial government minimized the role of the religious leaders, the kyai
Kyai
A Kyai is an expert in islam. The word is of Javanese origin, and is sometimes spelled kiai. Traditionally, students of Islam in Indonesia would study in a boarding school known as a pesantren. The leader of the school was called kyai, as a form of respect. The traditional word for a teacher in...
and ulama
Ulama
-In Islam:* Ulema, also transliterated "ulama", a community of legal scholars of Islam and its laws . See:**Nahdlatul Ulama **Darul-uloom Nadwatul Ulama **Jamiatul Ulama Transvaal**Jamiat ul-Ulama -Other:...
, in an attempt to prevent them using their influence to lead resistance. Modern rulers have used it to "maintain the status quo", while those pushing for change use Islam as a means for justice or other political ends. This has led to a general fragmentation.
During the early 1960s then-President Sukarno
Sukarno
Sukarno, born Kusno Sosrodihardjo was the first President of Indonesia.Sukarno was the leader of his country's struggle for independence from the Netherlands and was Indonesia's first President from 1945 to 1967...
declared a new state ideology of Nasakom
Nasakom
Nasakom was a political concept during the Sukarno presidency in Indonesia. It is an acronym based on the Indonesian words NASionalisme , Agama , and KOMunisme ....
, which stood for Nasionalisme, Agama, dan Komunisme (Nationalism, Religion, and Communism), which would complement the existing policy of Pancasila. This declaration, viewed as proof of increasing Indonesian Communist Party (Partai Komunis Indonesia, or PKI) power, led to conflict between the PKI and the military. In the midst of an escalating confrontation with Malaysia, Sukarno demoted General Nasution
Abdul Haris Nasution
In this Indonesian name, the name "Nasution" is a family name, and the person should be referred to by the family name "Nasution".Abdul Haris Nasution was an Indonesian general who was twice appointed Army Chief of Staff and who escaped an assassination attempt during the...
, Commander of the Army, and promoted Ahmad Yani
Ahmad Yani
General Ahmad Yani was the commander of the Indonesian Army, and was killed by members of the 30 September Movement during an attempt to kidnap him from his house.-Early life:...
, while the PKI spread rumours that a CIA-sponsored board of generals (Dewan Jenderal) were plotting against the government, using the Gilchrist Document
Gilchrist Document
The Gilchrist Document is a much cited letter from 1965 often used to support arguments for Western involvement in the overthrow of Sukarno in Indonesia....
as proof. Eventually, a coup
30 September Movement
The Thirtieth of September Movement ) was a self-proclaimed organization of Indonesian National Armed Forces members who, in the early hours of 1 October 1965, assassinated six Indonesian Army generals in an abortive coup d'état. Later that morning, the organization declared that it was in control...
thought to have been sponsored by the PKI killed six generals, leading to the massacre of suspected communists and the fall of Sukarno's government.
Plot
MuhammadMuhammad
Muhammad |ligature]] at U+FDF4 ;Arabic pronunciation varies regionally; the first vowel ranges from ~~; the second and the last vowel: ~~~. There are dialects which have no stress. In Egypt, it is pronounced not in religious contexts...
and the other prophets of Islam
Prophets of Islam
Muslims identify the Prophets of Islam as those humans chosen by God and given revelation to deliver to mankind. Muslims believe that every prophet was given a belief to worship God and their respective followers believed it as well...
, bored of living in jannah
Jannah
Jannah , is the Islamic conception of paradise. The Arabic word Jannah is a shortened version meaning simply "Garden". According to Islamic eschatology, after death, one will reside in the grave until the appointed resurrection on . Muslims believe that the treatment of the individual in the life...
(heaven) and weary of singing the praises of Allah
Allah
Allah is a word for God used in the context of Islam. In Arabic, the word means simply "God". It is used primarily by Muslims and Bahá'ís, and often, albeit not exclusively, used by Arabic-speaking Eastern Catholic Christians, Maltese Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, Mizrahi Jews and...
, request permission to return to Earth. Disappointed by the prophets' request, Allah calls on Muhammad to explain why he wishes to return, as Allah had already granted him many things. Muhammad replies that he wishes to conduct research, to discover why so few Muslims were coming to heaven. Allah, after removing his glasses, responds that they had been poisoned by Sukarno
Sukarno
Sukarno, born Kusno Sosrodihardjo was the first President of Indonesia.Sukarno was the leader of his country's struggle for independence from the Netherlands and was Indonesia's first President from 1945 to 1967...
's policy of Nasakom
Nasakom
Nasakom was a political concept during the Sukarno presidency in Indonesia. It is an acronym based on the Indonesian words NASionalisme , Agama , and KOMunisme ....
and grants permission.
After much fanfare, Muhammad departs jannah airport, riding a buraq
Buraq
Al-Burāq is a mythological steed, described as a creature from the heavens which transported the prophets. The most commonly told story is how in the 7th century, Al-Buraq carried the Islamic prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem and back during the Isra and Mi'raj or "Night Journey", which is...
, or winged horse. The Archangel Gabriel
Holy Spirit (Islam)
The Holy Spirit in Islam is mentioned several times in the Quran, and is interpreted by many muslims as referring to the angel Gabriel.-The Holy Spirit, al-Ruh al-Quds, in the Quran:...
accompanies him. On the way, they encounter a Soviet spacecraft. Hearing that they are infidels
Kafir
Kafir is an Arabic term used in a Islamic doctrinal sense, usually translated as "unbeliever" or "disbeliever"...
, Muhammad approaches to investigate, only to crash into the spacecraft, obliterating it and the buraq and killing the three cosmonauts; Muhammad and Gabriel are able to catch a cloud. Later, they pass Jakarta
Jakarta
Jakarta is the capital and largest city of Indonesia. Officially known as the Special Capital Territory of Jakarta, it is located on the northwest coast of Java, has an area of , and a population of 9,580,000. Jakarta is the country's economic, cultural and political centre...
, which Gabriel describes as the most sinful place on Earth. Angered by Gabriel's statement that less than a million of Indonesia's 90 million Muslims
Islam in Indonesia
Islam is the dominant religion in Indonesia, which also has a larger Muslim population than any other country in the world, with approximately 202.9 million identified as Muslim as of 2009....
are true believers, as well as the fact that it is the birthplace of Nasakom, Muhammad declares that Islam will never die and waits on the cloud.
Meanwhile, in Jakarta, an epidemic of the flu is underway. Among those who fall ill is President Sukarno, who writes to Chairman Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong, also transliterated as Mao Tse-tung , and commonly referred to as Chairman Mao , was a Chinese Communist revolutionary, guerrilla warfare strategist, Marxist political philosopher, and leader of the Chinese Revolution...
to request some doctors. Mao sends doctors, who give Sukarno poison to paralyze him and aid the 30 September Movement
30 September Movement
The Thirtieth of September Movement ) was a self-proclaimed organization of Indonesian National Armed Forces members who, in the early hours of 1 October 1965, assassinated six Indonesian Army generals in an abortive coup d'état. Later that morning, the organization declared that it was in control...
in overthrowing the government. The slow acting poison causes Sukarno to faint after he and his ministers have a large party with haram
Haram
The Arabic term has a meaning of "sanctuary" or "holy site" in Islam.-Etymology:The Arabic language has two separate words, and , both derived from the same triliteral Semitic root . Both of these words can mean "forbidden" and/or "sacred" in a general way, but each has also developed some...
events, including the consumption of pork and frog and zina (sex outside of marriage).
Muhammad and Gabriel, having transformed into eagles to observe Jakarta, see prostitution, adultery, theft, and drinking. Muhammad is shocked that zina and theft continue unabated, calling for Gabriel to help him stone
Rajm
Rajm is an Arabic word that means "stoning". It is commonly used to refer to the Hudud punishment wherein an organized group throws stones at a convicted individual until that person dies. Traditionally it is called for in cases of adultery where the criteria for conviction are met...
the adulterers and cut the hands off the thieves. Gabriel replies that there are not enough stones for the adulterers, and the swords have been replaced by guns bought by the "infidel" Soviets and Americans who "worship dollars". They later see a minister, referred to only as Togog attempting to use the Gilchrist Document
Gilchrist Document
The Gilchrist Document is a much cited letter from 1965 often used to support arguments for Western involvement in the overthrow of Sukarno in Indonesia....
to overthrow Sukarno. Muhammad gives up on Indonesia, planning to install television in jannah.
Eventually, Sukarno recovers from the poison and is told about the Gilchrist Document, also being told that the Chinese are reneging on their agreement to supply nuclear weapons for Indonesia's confrontation with Malaysia. Sukarno uses the Gilchrist Document to spread rumours and distrust among the populace, demoting his commander of the military, while the Chinese ambassador is sent home.
Writing and influences
"Langit Makin Mendung" was written under the pen name Kipandjikusmin. HB JassinHB Jassin
Hans Bague Jassin , better known as HB Jassin, was an Indonesian literary critic, documentarian, and professor. Born in Gorontalo to a bibliophilic petroleum company employee, Jassin began reading while still in elementary school, later writing published reviews before finishing high school...
, head editor of Sastra, said that Kipandjikusmin had been born to a Muslim family but educated in a Catholic junior school prior to being sent to a naval academy; Jassin noted that this Catholic education, with literature
Christian literature
Christian Literature is writing that deals with Christian themes and incorporates the Christian world view. This constitutes a huge body of extremely varied writing.-Scripture:...
which personifies God and angels, may have influenced his writing style. Another influence was Javanese wayang
Wayang
Wayang is a Javanese word for theatre . When the term is used to refer to kinds of puppet theatre, sometimes the puppet itself is referred to as wayang...
, or shadow puppets, with stories which traditionally have a hierarchy of anthropomorphic deities. Jassin also notes influences from the culture of the Guided Democracy era, evidenced from terms like sputnik and the social commentary, with strong condemnation of prostitution in Indonesia
Prostitution in Indonesia
Prostitution in Indonesia is legally considered a "crime against decency/morality", nevertheless it is widely practiced, tolerated and regulated. Some women are financially motivated to become prostitutes, while others may be forced by friends, relatives, or strangers...
and Sukarno's Nasakom.
Kipandjikusmin later told Ekspres magazine that his goal in writing the short story was to expose the corruption in Sukarno's government, focusing on the religious leaders who had agreed with Nasakom when it was politically expedient to do so, yet turned against the PKI when the party was hunted and its members killed. He also admitted the influences proposed by Jassin, writing that he had often though of the Catholic heaven as being similar to the Javanese Kahyangan, with God being similar to Batara Guru
Shiva
Shiva is a major Hindu deity, and is the destroyer god or transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. God Shiva is a yogi who has notice of everything that happens in the world and is the main aspect of life. Yet one with great power lives a life of a...
, with his depictions of Muhammad and Gabriel transforming into eagles being influenced by images of Christ as the Lamb of God
Lamb of God
The title Lamb of God appears in the Gospel of John, with the exclamation of John the Baptist: "Behold the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world" in John 1:29 when he sees Jesus....
. It was originally meant to be a serial, with the second instalment having already been received by Jassin when the controversy began.
Style
"Langit Makin Mendung" has been described as being written with crude and offensive expressions. Jassin argues that the style, though direct and at times discourteous, indicates a sense of irony, humor, sarcasm, and cynicism.Release and reception
"Langit Makin Mendung" was published in the literary magazine Sastra, headed by HB JassinHB Jassin
Hans Bague Jassin , better known as HB Jassin, was an Indonesian literary critic, documentarian, and professor. Born in Gorontalo to a bibliophilic petroleum company employee, Jassin began reading while still in elementary school, later writing published reviews before finishing high school...
, in August 1968, under the pen name Kipandjikusmin. It became instantly controversial, with Indonesian Muslims considering it blasphemous and an insult to Islam
Islam and blasphemy
Blasphemy in Islam is any irreverent behavior toward holy personages, religious artifacts, customs, and beliefs that Muslims revere. The Quran and the hadith do not speak about blasphemy. Jurists created the offence, and they made it part of Sharia. Where Sharia pertains, the penalties for...
. Among the points of contention were the anthropomorphic personification of Allah, as well as the "less than respectful" treatment of Muhammad and other Islamic figures. It was banned in North Sumatra
North Sumatra
North Sumatra is a province of Indonesia on the Sumatra island. Its capital is Medan. It is the most populous Indonesian province outside of Java. It is slightly larger than Sri Lanka in area.- Geography and population :...
on 12 October and groups of young Muslims attacked Sastra headquarters in Jakarta. After threats of prosecution, Jassin and his co-editor Rachman issued a public apology; despite this, the magazine was banned. On 22 or 25 October 1968, Kipandjikusmin followed suit, with a a statement in Kami.
In April 1969 or February 1970, the High Prosectuor's office in Medan
Medan
- Demography :The city is Indonesia's fourth most populous after Jakarta, Surabaya, and Bandung, and Indonesia's largest city outside of Java island. Much of the population lies outside its city limits, especially in Deli Serdang....
filed charges against Jassin, charging him with blasphemy after he was unwilling to divulge Kipandjikusmin's true name. At trial, Jassin argued that, as the story was a product of the author's imagination, it should not be considered an insult to Islam; he also cited physical descriptions of Allah from the Quran and Sufi literature, as well as the writer's Christian influences. A witness for the prosecution, noted ulama and writer Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah
Hamka
Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah, known as Hamka was a prominent Indonesian author, ulema and politician. His father, syekh Abdul Karim Amrullah, known as Haji Rasul, led and inspired the reform movement in Sumatra upon his arrival from the holy land Mecca in 1906...
(Hamka), testified that a depiction of Allah wearing glasses implied that Allah was imperfect, as opposed to the personifications cited by Jassin, which were based on man's love for Allah. Hamka later stated that nobody had been able to incite hatred against Muhammad like Kipandjikusmin since the Crusades
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars, blessed by the Pope and the Catholic Church with the main goal of restoring Christian access to the holy places in and near Jerusalem...
. Jassin was sentenced to a one year suspended sentence
Suspended sentence
A suspended sentence is a legal term for a judge's delaying of a defendant's serving of a sentence after they have been found guilty, in order to allow the defendant to perform a period of probation...
.
Literary
Jassin writes that "Langit Makin Mendung", as a result of its author's imagination, is not dogma, history, ethics, or an objective reality, but a work within its own world. As a result, Allah, Muhammad, and other religious figures are fictional charactersCharacter (arts)
A character is the representation of a person in a narrative work of art . Derived from the ancient Greek word kharaktêr , the earliest use in English, in this sense, dates from the Restoration, although it became widely used after its appearance in Tom Jones in 1749. From this, the sense of...
and not representative of their counterparts. He further argues that "Langit Makin Mendung" is not written as an insult, but social criticism
Social criticism
The term social criticism locates the reasons for malicious conditions of the society in flawed social structures. People adhering to a social critics aim at practical solutions by specific measures, often consensual reform but sometimes also by powerful revolution.- European roots :Religious...
on perceived mistakes and corruption during the Sukarno period. He draws on parallels between "Langit Makin Mendung", Dante
DANTE
Delivery of Advanced Network Technology to Europe is a not-for-profit organisation that plans, builds and operates the international networks that interconnect the various national research and education networks in Europe and surrounding regions...
's Divine Comedy, and Allama Muhammad Iqbal's Javid Nama
Javid Nama
The Javid Nama or Book of Eternity is a Persian book of poetry written by Allama Muhammad Iqbal and published in 1932. It is considered to be one of the masterpieces of Iqbal. It is inspired by Dante's Divine Comedy and just as Dante's guide was Virgil, Iqbal is guided by Moulana Rumi. Both of...
, focusing on the journey of a person and a guide, with objections being raised due to readers identifying imagination with religion.
Another critic, Bahrum Rangkuti, wrote that "Langit Makin Mendung" had to be judged based on Kipandjikusmin's intentions, which he interpreted as ridding Islam of Nasakom, which he saw as not being compatible. He noted that the Muslims criticized in the story are those who act in ways that are not permitted in Islam, such as drinking and committing zina, while other targets include inept leadership and corruption. Like Jassin, Rangkuti notes numerous instances of Allah being personified in the Quran and hadith
Hadith
The term Hadīth is used to denote a saying or an act or tacit approval or criticism ascribed either validly or invalidly to the Islamic prophet Muhammad....
s; he views the personification of Allah in "Langit Makin Mendung" as an attempt to draw Muslims closer to Allah.
Sukarsono argues that "Langit Makin Mendung" would have been a "monumental" critique, with a good description of degeneration and immorality in the early 1960s, if written during Sukarno's regime, like Machiavelli's The Prince
The Prince
The Prince is a political treatise by the Italian diplomat, historian and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli. From correspondence a version appears to have been distributed in 1513, using a Latin title, De Principatibus . But the printed version was not published until 1532, five years after...
was for its time, but as it was released in the New Order it lost some of its impact. He notes that in most cases the personification of Allah as being compatible with Islamic views of Allah. However, Allah's donning of gold spectacles is seen as being in contradiction to the tenets of Islam.
An opposing view, offered by Indonesian literary critic M. Jusuf Lubis, is that "Langit Makin Mendung", as it is based on actual events and dogma, including Muhammad's night journey
Isra and Mi'raj
The Isra and Mi'raj , are the two parts of a Night Journey that, according to Islamic tradition, the Islamic prophet Muhammad took during a single night around the year 621. It has been described as both a physical and spiritual journey...
. He rejects the view that the controversy arose from a misunderstanding of the story, writing that Indonesian Muslims reacted because they will not accept works that they see as denying the existence of Allah or comparing Pancasila to Nasakom. He notes that Jassin is inconsistent in his defense, calling the representations of Allah, Muhammad, and Gabriel figments of the author's imagination, but citing Sukarno and Nasakom as influences.
Legal
Many studies have been made pertaining to the legal aspects of the "Langit Makin Mendung" case. One opinion is that the prosecution office had no legal basis for acting as both judge and literary critic in the case, with the blasphemy laws used in prosecution not being at least government or parliamentary level. The banning of Sastra is criticized for having no legal basis, as laws pertaining to the banning of print media at the time only applied to foreign publications; per the then-applicable Press Laws, any banning of a magazine would require approval of the Press Board. The need for freedom of speechFreedom of speech
Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without censorship. The term freedom of expression is sometimes used synonymously, but includes any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium used...
is also mentioned.
Another view is that the prosecution's actions were justified, pointing to the obscurity of the press laws, as well as the intent to publish, indicated by the story's prominent placement in the magazine. In response to arguments that the banning of Sastra was a violation of the right to freedom of speech, Sju'bah Asa argues that the public and prosecutors have the same right, which can exercised through protests or legal action. Poet Taufiq Ismail notes that most protests against the prosecution's actions were for their motion to ban Sastra, a reputable and respected publication, which does not indicate that "Langit Makin Mendung" was being supported.