Kilwa Sultanate
Encyclopedia
The Kilwa Sultanate was a Medieval sultanate, centered at Kilwa
(in modern-day Tanzania
), whose authority, at its height, stretched over the entire length of the Swahili Coast
. It was founded in the 10th century by Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi
, a Persian
Prince of Shiraz
. His family ruled the Sultanate until the year 1277. It was replaced by the Arab family of Abu Moaheb until 1505, when it was overthrown by a Portuguese invasion. By 1513, the sultanate was already fragmented into smaller states, many of which became protectorates of the Sultanate of Oman.
, Persia, his mother an Abyssinian
slave. Upon his father's death, Ali was driven out of his inheritance by his brothers. Setting sail out of Hormuz
, Ali ibn al-Hassan, his household and a small group of followers first made their way to Mogadishu
, the main commercial city of the East African coast. However, Ali failed to get along with the city's Somali elite and he was soon driven out of that city as well.
Steering down the African coast, Ali is said to have purchased the island of Kilwa
from the local Bantu inhabitants. According to one chronicle (Strong, 1895), Kilwa was originally owned by a mainland Bantu king 'Almuli' and connected by a small land bridge to the mainland that appeared in low tide. The king agreed to sell it to Ali ibn al-Hassan for as much colored cloth as could cover the circumference of the island. But when the king later changed his mind, and tried to take it back, the Persians had dug up the land bridge, and Kilwa was now an island.
Kilwa's fortuitous position made it a much better East African trade center than Mogadishu
. It quickly began to attract many merchants and immigrants from further north, including Persia and Arabia. In just a few years, the colony was big enough to establish a satellite settlement at nearby Mafia Island
.
Kilwa's emergence as a commercial center challenged the dominance once held by Mogadishu
over the East African coast. Suleiman Hassan, the ninth successor of Ali (and 12th ruler of Kilwa, c.1178-1195), wrested control of the southerly city of Sofala
. Wealthy Sofala was the principal entrepot for the gold and ivory trade
with Great Zimbabwe
and Monomatapa in the interior. The acquisition of Sofala brought a windfall of gold revenues to the Kilwa Sultans, which allowed them to finance their expansion and extend their powers all along the East African coast.
At the zenith of its power in the 15th C., the Kilwa Sultanate owned or claimed overlordship over the mainland cities of Malindi
, Inhambane
and Sofala
and the island-states of Mombassa, Pemba, Zanzibar
, Mafia
, Comoro
and Mozambique (plus numerous smaller places) - essentially what is now often referred to as the "Swahili Coast
".
Kilwa also claimed lordship across the channel
over the myriad of small trading posts scattered on the coast of Madagascar
(then known by its Arabic name as island of the Moon). To the north, Kilwa's power was checked by the independent Somali city-states of Barawa
(a self-ruling aristocratic republic) and Mogadishu
(the once-dominant city, Kilwa's main rival). To the south, Kilwa's reach extended as far as Cape Correntes
, below which merchant ships did not usually dare sail.
While a single figure, the Sultan of Kilwa, stood at the top of the hierarchy, the Kilwa Sultanate was not a centralized state. It was more a confederation of commercial cities, each with its own internal elite, merchant communities and trade connections. The Sultan might appoint a governor or overseer, but even his authority was not consistent - in some places (e.g. outposts like Mozambique Island) he was a true governor in the Sultan's name, whereas in more established cities like Sofala
his powers were much more limited, more akin to an ambassador to the city, than its governor.
(literally, 'coast-dwellers'). Nonetheless, the Muslims of Kilwa (whatever their ethnicity) would often refer to themselves generally as Shirazi or Arabs, and to the unconverted Bantu peoples of the mainland as Zanj or Khaffirs ('infidels', later adopted as a racial epithet by European settlers).
The Kilwa Sultanate was almost wholly dependent on external commerce. Effectively, it was a confederation of urban settlements, there was little or no agriculture carried on in within the boundaries of sultanate. Grains (principally millet
and rice
), meats (cattle, poultry) and other necessary supplies to feed the large city populations had to be purchased from the Bantu peoples of the interior. Kilwan traders from the coast encouraged the development of market towns in the Bantu-dominated highlands of what are now Kenya
, Tanzania
, Mozambique
and Zimbabwe
. The Kilwan mode of living was as middlemen traders, importing manufactured goods (cloth, etc.) from Arabia and India, which were then swapped in the highland market towns for Bantu-produced agricultural commodities (grain, meats) for their own subsistence and precious raw materials (gold, ivory, etc.) which they would export back to Asia.
The exception was the coconut palm tree
. Grown all along the coast, the coconut palm was the mainstay of Kilwan life in every way - not only for the fruit, but also for timber, thatching and weaving. Kilwan merchant ships - from the large lateen-rigged dhows that ploughed the open oceans to the small zambucs used for local transit - were usually built from the split trunks of coconut palm wood, their sails made from coconut leaf matting and the ships held together by coconut coir
.
The Kilwa Sultanate conducted extensive trade with Arabia, Persia, and across the Indian Ocean
, to India itself. Kilwan ships made use of the seasonal monsoon
winds to sail across to India in the summer, and back to Africa in the winter. Kilwan pilots had a reputation for extraordinary sailing accuracy. The Portuguese marveled at their navigational instruments, particularly their latitude staves, which they considered superior to their own.
Nonetheless, the coir-sewn Kilwan ships were not seaworthy enough to brave the treacherous waters and unpredictable violent gusts around Cape Correntes
, so the entire region south of that point was rarely sailed by Kilwan merchants. Inhambane
was the most southerly settlement that can be considered part of the Kilwan trading empire.
s and emir
s), who played the roles of kingmakers, and de facto rulers, occasionally tried to foist themselves (or one of their family members) on the throne, in competition with the royal dynasty. The most successful was probably Emir Muhammad Kiwabi, who ruled Kilwa for nearly two decades through several sultans, including himself at one point.
Throughout his long 'reign', Emir Muhammad fought an on-again and off-again battle with his nephew, Hassan ibn Suleiman (son of an earlier vizier). Muhammad had, in fact, tried to install Hassan as sultan a couple of times, but it met tremendous resistance from the population of Kilwa. Eventually, Emir Muhammad decided that, in the interests of constitutional propriety and civic peace, Kilwa sultans should always come from the royal dynasty, not families of viziers. Muhammad held that line more-or-less down to the end, thwarting Hassan's ambitions.
The last sultan installed by Emir Muhammad before his death was the royal prince al-Fudail ibn Suleiman in 1495. The man who succeeded to Muhammad's post, Emir Ibrahim (known as Mir Habrahemo in Barros
, Abraemo in Goes), helped al-Fudail crush the ambitious Hassan once and for all in a great battle outside Kilwa. But it was not long after this battle that Emir Ibrahim is said to have betrayed and murdered sultan al-Fudail. Rather than declare himself sultan, Ibrahim took power merely with the title of emir, and claimed to be exercising rule in the name of a son of an earlier sultan Suleiman (ibn Muhammad?) of the old royal dynasty. That no one had seen or heard of this absent prince for years was quite convenient for Emir Ibrahim.
Emir Ibrahim's usurpation was met with shock not only in Kilwa, but in the vassal cities as well. Emir Muhammad had (belatedly) recognized the importance of constitutional propriety for peace in the Kilwa Sultanate. Emir Ibrahim's murderous coup had run roughshod over it. Most of the local governors of the Kilwa vassal cities, many who were either relatives or had owed their positions to Emir Muhammad and the royal dynasty, refused to acknowledge the usurpation of Emir Ibrahim, and began charting an independent course for their own city-states. The writ of Emir Ibrahim probably only covered the city of Kilwa
itself and possibly Mozambique Island.
This was more or less the condition of the Kilwa Sultanate when the Portuguese arrived.
Portuguese scout Pêro da Covilhã
, disguised as an Arab merchant, had travelled the length of the Kilwa Sultanate in 1489-90, and visited the ports of Malindi, Kilwa and Sofala, and delivered his scouting report back to Lisbon, describing the condition of the Kilwa Sultanate in quite some detail. The first Portuguese ships, under Vasco da Gama
, on their way to India
, reached the sultanate in 1497. Gama made contact with the Kilwa vassals of Mozambique
, Mombassa and Malindi
, seeking to secure their cooperation as staging posts for the Portuguese India Armadas
.
In 1500, the 2nd Portuguese India Armada
, under Pedro Álvares Cabral
, visited Kilwa itself, and attempted to negotiate a commercial and alliance treaty with Emir Ibrahim. But emir prevaricated and no agreement was reached.
The well-armed Fourth Armada
of 1502, under Vasco da Gama again, came in a more mean-spirited mood, indisposed to take no for an answer. Having secured separate treaties with Malindi
, Mozambique and all-important Sofala
, the Portuguese brought their menacing fleet to bear on Kilwa itself, and extorted a sizeable tribute from emir Ibrahim.
Some have speculated whether Emir Ibrahim missed a golden opportunity to restore his fortunes, that had a treaty with Cabral been reached back in 1500, he might have secured the assistance of the Portuguese navy in bringing the half-independent vassals back under his sway. At least one Kilwan nobleman, a certain Muhammad ibn Rukn ad Din (known to the Portuguese as Muhammad Arcone), certainly advised Emir Ibrahim to strike up an alliance with the Portuguese (and for his pains, was given up as a hostage to the Portuguese by the Emir, who then refused ransom him back - allowing him to be subjected to Gama's wrath.)
As it turns out, the vassals used the Portuguese, one by one, to secure their permanent break from the Sultanate. The ruler of Malindi]] was the first to embrace the Portuguese, forging an alliance in 1497 (largely to directed against Mombassa). After Emir Ibrahim's coup, it was certainly not hard to persuade the ruling sheikh Isuf of Sofala
(Yçuf in Barros
, Çufe in Goes) (apparently a nephew of the late great Emir Muhammad) to break away. He signed a treaty with the Portuguese in 1502, and followed it up by allowing the construction of a Portuguese factory and fort in Sofala in 1505.
It was in 1505 that Francisco de Almeida
brought his fleet into the harbor of Kilwa, and landed some 500 Portuguese soldiers to drive Emir Ibrahim out of the city. Almeida installed the aforementioned Muhammad Arcone on the throne, as a Portuguese vassal. Remembering constitutional proprieties, Arcone insisted that Micante, the son of the late sultan al-Fudail be his designated successor. The Portuguese erected a fortress (Fort Santiago) on Kilwa and left a garrison behind, under the command of Pedro Ferreira Fogaça to keep an eye on things.
Portuguese rule was not very welcome. Particularly grating was the imposition of Portuguese Mercantilist laws on the sultanate, forbidding all but Portuguese ships to carry trade to the principal coastal towns - essentially putting many leading Kilwan merchants out of business.
The Portuguese did not stay very long. In May, 1506, Muhammad Arcone was lured and assassinated by the sheikh of Tirendicunde (a relative of Emir Ibrahim). As per the pre-arranged succession rule, Micante ascended to the throne. But Fogaça, seeing that Micante's ascension was supported by the old faction of Emir Ibrahim, concluded he would not do as a Portuguese puppet. Consequently, he deposed Micante and installed Hussein ibn Muhammad, a son of Arcone, as the new sultan.
Chaos broke out in the city of Kilwa. Partisans of Micante (& Emir Ibrahim) seized control of much of the city, driving sultan Hussein (and the partisans of Arcone) to seek refuge by the Portuguese Fort Santiago. Street fighting and soon fires broke out. In the chaos, streams of Kilwan residents fled the city, leaving it practically deserted, save for a handful of roving partisan gangs and the terrified Portuguese garrison.
Hearing of the Kilwan chaos all the way in India, the Portuguese vice-roy Almeida dispatched an magistrate Nuno Vaz Pereira, to inquire into the matter. Arriving in late 1506, Pereira convened the competing sultans Micante and Hussein, and asked them present their cases. Pereira ruled in favor of Hussein, confirming him as sultan, but softened the blow by relieving the unpopular commander Fogaça and lifting the mercantilist restrictions on Kilwa shipping.
The Kilwan refugees returned and a modicum of peace resumed, but only briefly. For Hussein put it in his head to lead the Kilwan army against Tirendicunde, to avenge his father's murder. The town was brutally sacked, and numerous prisoners taken. Hussein then dispatched emissaries to all the vassal cities of the Kilwa Sultanate, ordering them to return to obedience, or else meet the same fate.
Fearing that Hussein's spate of tyranny might jeopordize Portuguese interests in East Africa, vice-roy Almeida reversed Pereira's decision, deposed Hussein and reinstated Micante.
(Decadas, Dec. I, Lib. 8, Cap. 6). There is another surviving chronicle by an unknown author, written in the early 16th century, and compiled in 1862 by (or for) sheikh Moheddin (Majid
?) of Zanzibar
(Strong, 1895). The Barros and Zanzibar chronicles are not always in concordance with each other. The following follows Barros in its outlines, but fills in details from the Zanzibar chronicle. Dates are approximate years of ascension (utilizing the list compiled in Bosworth (1996:p. 132))
Shirazi Era
- End of Persian Shirazi dynasty, beginning of Mahdali dynasty of Yemeni Arab sharifs, or what the Zanzibar chronicle calls the 'family of Abu al-Mawahib' -
Mahdali Era
- End of Mahdali dynasty, beginning of a series of usurpers and Portuguese puppets -
Portuguese Era
Kilwa Kisiwani
Kilwa Kisiwani is a community on an island off the coast of East Africa, in present day Tanzania.- History :A document written around AD 1200 called al-Maqama al Kilwiyya discovered in Oman, gives details of a mission to reconvert Kilwa to Ibadism, as it had recently been effected by the Ghurabiyya...
(in modern-day Tanzania
Tanzania
The United Republic of Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian Ocean.Tanzania is a state...
), whose authority, at its height, stretched over the entire length of the Swahili Coast
Swahili Coast
The Swahili Coast refers to the coast or coastal area of East Africa inhabited by the Swahili people, mainly Kenya, Tanzania, and north Mozambique...
. It was founded in the 10th century by Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi
, a Persian
Persian people
The Persian people are part of the Iranian peoples who speak the modern Persian language and closely akin Iranian dialects and languages. The origin of the ethnic Iranian/Persian peoples are traced to the Ancient Iranian peoples, who were part of the ancient Indo-Iranians and themselves part of...
Prince of Shiraz
Shiraz
Shiraz may refer to:* Shiraz, Iran, a city in Iran* Shiraz County, an administrative subdivision of Iran* Vosketap, Armenia, formerly called ShirazPeople:* Hovhannes Shiraz, Armenian poet* Ara Shiraz, Armenian sculptor...
. His family ruled the Sultanate until the year 1277. It was replaced by the Arab family of Abu Moaheb until 1505, when it was overthrown by a Portuguese invasion. By 1513, the sultanate was already fragmented into smaller states, many of which became protectorates of the Sultanate of Oman.
History
The story of Kilwa begins around 960-1000 AD. Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi was one of seven sons of a ruler of ShirazShiraz
Shiraz may refer to:* Shiraz, Iran, a city in Iran* Shiraz County, an administrative subdivision of Iran* Vosketap, Armenia, formerly called ShirazPeople:* Hovhannes Shiraz, Armenian poet* Ara Shiraz, Armenian sculptor...
, Persia, his mother an Abyssinian
Abyssinian
Abyssinian may refer to:* Abyssinian, Habesha people and things from parts of Ethiopia and Eritrea, formerly known as Abyssinia* Abyssinian , a cat breed* Abyssinian, a breed of guinea pig* The Abyssinians, a Jamaican roots reggae group...
slave. Upon his father's death, Ali was driven out of his inheritance by his brothers. Setting sail out of Hormuz
Ormus
The Kingdom of Ormus was a 10th to 17th century kingdom located within the Persian Gulf and extending as far as the Strait of Hormuz...
, Ali ibn al-Hassan, his household and a small group of followers first made their way to Mogadishu
Mogadishu
Mogadishu , popularly known as Xamar, is the largest city in Somalia and the nation's capital. Located in the coastal Benadir region on the Indian Ocean, the city has served as an important port for centuries....
, the main commercial city of the East African coast. However, Ali failed to get along with the city's Somali elite and he was soon driven out of that city as well.
Steering down the African coast, Ali is said to have purchased the island of Kilwa
Kilwa Kisiwani
Kilwa Kisiwani is a community on an island off the coast of East Africa, in present day Tanzania.- History :A document written around AD 1200 called al-Maqama al Kilwiyya discovered in Oman, gives details of a mission to reconvert Kilwa to Ibadism, as it had recently been effected by the Ghurabiyya...
from the local Bantu inhabitants. According to one chronicle (Strong, 1895), Kilwa was originally owned by a mainland Bantu king 'Almuli' and connected by a small land bridge to the mainland that appeared in low tide. The king agreed to sell it to Ali ibn al-Hassan for as much colored cloth as could cover the circumference of the island. But when the king later changed his mind, and tried to take it back, the Persians had dug up the land bridge, and Kilwa was now an island.
Kilwa's fortuitous position made it a much better East African trade center than Mogadishu
Mogadishu
Mogadishu , popularly known as Xamar, is the largest city in Somalia and the nation's capital. Located in the coastal Benadir region on the Indian Ocean, the city has served as an important port for centuries....
. It quickly began to attract many merchants and immigrants from further north, including Persia and Arabia. In just a few years, the colony was big enough to establish a satellite settlement at nearby Mafia Island
Mafia Island
Mafia Island is part of the Tanzanian Spice Islands, together with Unguja and Pemba. As one of the six districts of the Pwani Region, Mafia Island is governed from the mainland, not from the semi-autonomous region of Zanzibar, of which it has never been considered to be a part.According to the...
.
Kilwa's emergence as a commercial center challenged the dominance once held by Mogadishu
Mogadishu
Mogadishu , popularly known as Xamar, is the largest city in Somalia and the nation's capital. Located in the coastal Benadir region on the Indian Ocean, the city has served as an important port for centuries....
over the East African coast. Suleiman Hassan, the ninth successor of Ali (and 12th ruler of Kilwa, c.1178-1195), wrested control of the southerly city of Sofala
Sofala
Sofala, at present known as Nova Sofala, used to be the chief seaport of the Monomotapa Kingdom, whose capital was at Mount Fura. It is located on the Sofala Bank in Sofala Province of Mozambique.-History:...
. Wealthy Sofala was the principal entrepot for the gold and ivory trade
Ivory trade
The ivory trade is the commercial, often illegal trade in the ivory tusks of the hippopotamus, walrus, narwhal, mammoth, and most commonly, Asian and African elephants....
with Great Zimbabwe
Great Zimbabwe
Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city that was once the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, which existed from 1100 to 1450 C.E. during the country’s Late Iron Age. The monument, which first began to be constructed in the 11th century and which continued to be built until the 14th century, spanned an...
and Monomatapa in the interior. The acquisition of Sofala brought a windfall of gold revenues to the Kilwa Sultans, which allowed them to finance their expansion and extend their powers all along the East African coast.
At the zenith of its power in the 15th C., the Kilwa Sultanate owned or claimed overlordship over the mainland cities of Malindi
Malindi
Malindi is a town on Malindi Bay at the mouth of the Galana River, lying on the Indian Ocean coast of Kenya. It is 120 kilometres northeast of Mombasa. The population of Malindi is 117,735 . It is the capital of the Malindi District.Tourism is the major industry in Malindi. The city is...
, Inhambane
Inhambane
Inhambane, Terra de Boa Gente is a city located in southern Mozambique, lying on Inhambane Bay, 470 km northeast of Maputo. It is the capital of the Inhambane Province and according to the 2008 census has a population of 65,837, growing from the 1997 census of 54,157...
and Sofala
Sofala
Sofala, at present known as Nova Sofala, used to be the chief seaport of the Monomotapa Kingdom, whose capital was at Mount Fura. It is located on the Sofala Bank in Sofala Province of Mozambique.-History:...
and the island-states of Mombassa, Pemba, Zanzibar
Zanzibar
Zanzibar ,Persian: زنگبار, from suffix bār: "coast" and Zangi: "bruin" ; is a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania, in East Africa. It comprises the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of the mainland, and consists of numerous small islands and two large ones: Unguja , and Pemba...
, Mafia
Mafia Island
Mafia Island is part of the Tanzanian Spice Islands, together with Unguja and Pemba. As one of the six districts of the Pwani Region, Mafia Island is governed from the mainland, not from the semi-autonomous region of Zanzibar, of which it has never been considered to be a part.According to the...
, Comoro
Grande Comore
Grande Comore is an island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa. It is the largest island in the Comoros nation. Most of its population is of the Comorian ethnic group. Its population as of 2006 is about 316,600. The island's capital is Moroni, which is also the national capital...
and Mozambique (plus numerous smaller places) - essentially what is now often referred to as the "Swahili Coast
Swahili Coast
The Swahili Coast refers to the coast or coastal area of East Africa inhabited by the Swahili people, mainly Kenya, Tanzania, and north Mozambique...
".
Kilwa also claimed lordship across the channel
Mozambique Channel
The Mozambique Channel is a portion of the Indian Ocean located between the island nation of Madagascar and southeast Africa, primarily the country of Mozambique. It was a World War II clashpoint during the Battle of Madagascar...
over the myriad of small trading posts scattered on the coast of Madagascar
Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
(then known by its Arabic name as island of the Moon). To the north, Kilwa's power was checked by the independent Somali city-states of Barawa
Barawa
Barawa or Brava is a port town on the south-eastern coast of Somalia. The traditional inhabitants are the Tunni Somalis and the Bravanese people, who speak Bravanese, a Swahili dialect.-History:...
(a self-ruling aristocratic republic) and Mogadishu
Mogadishu
Mogadishu , popularly known as Xamar, is the largest city in Somalia and the nation's capital. Located in the coastal Benadir region on the Indian Ocean, the city has served as an important port for centuries....
(the once-dominant city, Kilwa's main rival). To the south, Kilwa's reach extended as far as Cape Correntes
Cape Correntes
Cape Correntes is a cape or headland in the Inhambane Province in Mozambique. It sits at the southern entry of the Mozambique Channel.•...
, below which merchant ships did not usually dare sail.
While a single figure, the Sultan of Kilwa, stood at the top of the hierarchy, the Kilwa Sultanate was not a centralized state. It was more a confederation of commercial cities, each with its own internal elite, merchant communities and trade connections. The Sultan might appoint a governor or overseer, but even his authority was not consistent - in some places (e.g. outposts like Mozambique Island) he was a true governor in the Sultan's name, whereas in more established cities like Sofala
Sofala
Sofala, at present known as Nova Sofala, used to be the chief seaport of the Monomotapa Kingdom, whose capital was at Mount Fura. It is located on the Sofala Bank in Sofala Province of Mozambique.-History:...
his powers were much more limited, more akin to an ambassador to the city, than its governor.
Society & Economy
Despite its origin as a Persian colony, extensive inter-marriage and conversion of local Bantu inhabitants and later Arab immigration turned the Kilwa Sultanate into a veritable melting pot, ethnically indifferentiable from the mainland. The mixture of Perso-Arab and Bantu cultures is credited for creating a distinctive East African culture and language known today as SwahiliSwahili culture
Swahili culture is the culture of the Swahili people living on the east coast of Tanzania, Kenya, and Mozambique as well as on the islands in the area, from Zanzibar to Comoros, who speak Swahili as their native language....
(literally, 'coast-dwellers'). Nonetheless, the Muslims of Kilwa (whatever their ethnicity) would often refer to themselves generally as Shirazi or Arabs, and to the unconverted Bantu peoples of the mainland as Zanj or Khaffirs ('infidels', later adopted as a racial epithet by European settlers).
The Kilwa Sultanate was almost wholly dependent on external commerce. Effectively, it was a confederation of urban settlements, there was little or no agriculture carried on in within the boundaries of sultanate. Grains (principally millet
Millet
The millets are a group of small-seeded species of cereal crops or grains, widely grown around the world for food and fodder. They do not form a taxonomic group, but rather a functional or agronomic one. Their essential similarities are that they are small-seeded grasses grown in difficult...
and rice
Rice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
), meats (cattle, poultry) and other necessary supplies to feed the large city populations had to be purchased from the Bantu peoples of the interior. Kilwan traders from the coast encouraged the development of market towns in the Bantu-dominated highlands of what are now Kenya
Kenya
Kenya , officially known as the Republic of Kenya, is a country in East Africa that lies on the equator, with the Indian Ocean to its south-east...
, Tanzania
Tanzania
The United Republic of Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian Ocean.Tanzania is a state...
, Mozambique
Mozambique
Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique , is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest...
and Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in the southern part of the African continent, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia and a tip of Namibia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east. Zimbabwe has three...
. The Kilwan mode of living was as middlemen traders, importing manufactured goods (cloth, etc.) from Arabia and India, which were then swapped in the highland market towns for Bantu-produced agricultural commodities (grain, meats) for their own subsistence and precious raw materials (gold, ivory, etc.) which they would export back to Asia.
The exception was the coconut palm tree
Coconut
The coconut palm, Cocos nucifera, is a member of the family Arecaceae . It is the only accepted species in the genus Cocos. The term coconut can refer to the entire coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which is not a botanical nut. The spelling cocoanut is an old-fashioned form of the word...
. Grown all along the coast, the coconut palm was the mainstay of Kilwan life in every way - not only for the fruit, but also for timber, thatching and weaving. Kilwan merchant ships - from the large lateen-rigged dhows that ploughed the open oceans to the small zambucs used for local transit - were usually built from the split trunks of coconut palm wood, their sails made from coconut leaf matting and the ships held together by coconut coir
Coir
Coir is a natural fibre extracted from the husk of coconut and used in products such as floor mats, doormats, brushes, mattresses etc. Technically coir is the fibrous material found between the hard, internal shell and the outer coat of a coconut. Other uses of brown coir are in upholstery...
.
The Kilwa Sultanate conducted extensive trade with Arabia, Persia, and across the Indian Ocean
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula ; on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and...
, to India itself. Kilwan ships made use of the seasonal monsoon
Monsoon
Monsoon is traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation, but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of land and sea...
winds to sail across to India in the summer, and back to Africa in the winter. Kilwan pilots had a reputation for extraordinary sailing accuracy. The Portuguese marveled at their navigational instruments, particularly their latitude staves, which they considered superior to their own.
Nonetheless, the coir-sewn Kilwan ships were not seaworthy enough to brave the treacherous waters and unpredictable violent gusts around Cape Correntes
Cape Correntes
Cape Correntes is a cape or headland in the Inhambane Province in Mozambique. It sits at the southern entry of the Mozambique Channel.•...
, so the entire region south of that point was rarely sailed by Kilwan merchants. Inhambane
Inhambane
Inhambane, Terra de Boa Gente is a city located in southern Mozambique, lying on Inhambane Bay, 470 km northeast of Maputo. It is the capital of the Inhambane Province and according to the 2008 census has a population of 65,837, growing from the 1997 census of 54,157...
was the most southerly settlement that can be considered part of the Kilwan trading empire.
Decline and Fall
In its later years, the Sultans of Kilwa began falling into the hands of their ambitious ministers (vizierVizier
A vizier or in Arabic script ; ; sometimes spelled vazir, vizir, vasir, wazir, vesir, or vezir) is a high-ranking political advisor or minister in a Muslim government....
s and emir
Emir
Emir , meaning "commander", "general", or "prince"; also transliterated as Amir, Aamir or Ameer) is a title of high office, used throughout the Muslim world...
s), who played the roles of kingmakers, and de facto rulers, occasionally tried to foist themselves (or one of their family members) on the throne, in competition with the royal dynasty. The most successful was probably Emir Muhammad Kiwabi, who ruled Kilwa for nearly two decades through several sultans, including himself at one point.
Throughout his long 'reign', Emir Muhammad fought an on-again and off-again battle with his nephew, Hassan ibn Suleiman (son of an earlier vizier). Muhammad had, in fact, tried to install Hassan as sultan a couple of times, but it met tremendous resistance from the population of Kilwa. Eventually, Emir Muhammad decided that, in the interests of constitutional propriety and civic peace, Kilwa sultans should always come from the royal dynasty, not families of viziers. Muhammad held that line more-or-less down to the end, thwarting Hassan's ambitions.
The last sultan installed by Emir Muhammad before his death was the royal prince al-Fudail ibn Suleiman in 1495. The man who succeeded to Muhammad's post, Emir Ibrahim (known as Mir Habrahemo in Barros
João de Barros
João de Barros , called the Portuguese Livy, is one of the first great Portuguese historians, most famous for his Décadas da Ásia , a history of the Portuguese in India and Asia.-Early years:...
, Abraemo in Goes), helped al-Fudail crush the ambitious Hassan once and for all in a great battle outside Kilwa. But it was not long after this battle that Emir Ibrahim is said to have betrayed and murdered sultan al-Fudail. Rather than declare himself sultan, Ibrahim took power merely with the title of emir, and claimed to be exercising rule in the name of a son of an earlier sultan Suleiman (ibn Muhammad?) of the old royal dynasty. That no one had seen or heard of this absent prince for years was quite convenient for Emir Ibrahim.
Emir Ibrahim's usurpation was met with shock not only in Kilwa, but in the vassal cities as well. Emir Muhammad had (belatedly) recognized the importance of constitutional propriety for peace in the Kilwa Sultanate. Emir Ibrahim's murderous coup had run roughshod over it. Most of the local governors of the Kilwa vassal cities, many who were either relatives or had owed their positions to Emir Muhammad and the royal dynasty, refused to acknowledge the usurpation of Emir Ibrahim, and began charting an independent course for their own city-states. The writ of Emir Ibrahim probably only covered the city of Kilwa
Kilwa Kisiwani
Kilwa Kisiwani is a community on an island off the coast of East Africa, in present day Tanzania.- History :A document written around AD 1200 called al-Maqama al Kilwiyya discovered in Oman, gives details of a mission to reconvert Kilwa to Ibadism, as it had recently been effected by the Ghurabiyya...
itself and possibly Mozambique Island.
This was more or less the condition of the Kilwa Sultanate when the Portuguese arrived.
Portuguese scout Pêro da Covilhã
Pêro da Covilhã
Pedro or Pêro da Covilhã was a Portuguese diplomat and explorer.He was a native of Covilhã in Beira. In his early life he had gone to Castile and entered the service of Alphonso, Duke of Seville...
, disguised as an Arab merchant, had travelled the length of the Kilwa Sultanate in 1489-90, and visited the ports of Malindi, Kilwa and Sofala, and delivered his scouting report back to Lisbon, describing the condition of the Kilwa Sultanate in quite some detail. The first Portuguese ships, under Vasco da Gama
Vasco da Gama
Vasco da Gama, 1st Count of Vidigueira was a Portuguese explorer, one of the most successful in the Age of Discovery and the commander of the first ships to sail directly from Europe to India...
, on their way to India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, reached the sultanate in 1497. Gama made contact with the Kilwa vassals of Mozambique
Mozambique
Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique , is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest...
, Mombassa and Malindi
Malindi
Malindi is a town on Malindi Bay at the mouth of the Galana River, lying on the Indian Ocean coast of Kenya. It is 120 kilometres northeast of Mombasa. The population of Malindi is 117,735 . It is the capital of the Malindi District.Tourism is the major industry in Malindi. The city is...
, seeking to secure their cooperation as staging posts for the Portuguese India Armadas
Portuguese India Armadas
The Portuguese India armadas were the fleets of ships, organized by the Portuguese crown and dispatched on an annual basis from Portugal to India, principally Goa...
.
In 1500, the 2nd Portuguese India Armada
2nd Portuguese India Armada (Cabral, 1500)
The Second Portuguese India Armada was assembled in 1500 on the order of King Manuel I of Portugal and placed under the command of Pedro Álvares Cabral. Cabral's armada famously discovered Brazil for the Portuguese crown along the way...
, under Pedro Álvares Cabral
Pedro Álvares Cabral
Pedro Álvares Cabral was a Portuguese noble, military commander, navigator and explorer regarded as the discoverer of Brazil. Cabral conducted the first substantial exploration of the northeast coast of South America and claimed it for Portugal. While details of Cabral's early life are sketchy, it...
, visited Kilwa itself, and attempted to negotiate a commercial and alliance treaty with Emir Ibrahim. But emir prevaricated and no agreement was reached.
The well-armed Fourth Armada
4th Portuguese India Armada (Gama, 1502)
The Fourth India Armada was assembled in 1502 on the order of King Manuel I of Portugal and placed under the command of D. Vasco da Gama. It was Gama's second trip to India...
of 1502, under Vasco da Gama again, came in a more mean-spirited mood, indisposed to take no for an answer. Having secured separate treaties with Malindi
Malindi
Malindi is a town on Malindi Bay at the mouth of the Galana River, lying on the Indian Ocean coast of Kenya. It is 120 kilometres northeast of Mombasa. The population of Malindi is 117,735 . It is the capital of the Malindi District.Tourism is the major industry in Malindi. The city is...
, Mozambique and all-important Sofala
Sofala
Sofala, at present known as Nova Sofala, used to be the chief seaport of the Monomotapa Kingdom, whose capital was at Mount Fura. It is located on the Sofala Bank in Sofala Province of Mozambique.-History:...
, the Portuguese brought their menacing fleet to bear on Kilwa itself, and extorted a sizeable tribute from emir Ibrahim.
Some have speculated whether Emir Ibrahim missed a golden opportunity to restore his fortunes, that had a treaty with Cabral been reached back in 1500, he might have secured the assistance of the Portuguese navy in bringing the half-independent vassals back under his sway. At least one Kilwan nobleman, a certain Muhammad ibn Rukn ad Din (known to the Portuguese as Muhammad Arcone), certainly advised Emir Ibrahim to strike up an alliance with the Portuguese (and for his pains, was given up as a hostage to the Portuguese by the Emir, who then refused ransom him back - allowing him to be subjected to Gama's wrath.)
As it turns out, the vassals used the Portuguese, one by one, to secure their permanent break from the Sultanate. The ruler of Malindi]] was the first to embrace the Portuguese, forging an alliance in 1497 (largely to directed against Mombassa). After Emir Ibrahim's coup, it was certainly not hard to persuade the ruling sheikh Isuf of Sofala
Sofala
Sofala, at present known as Nova Sofala, used to be the chief seaport of the Monomotapa Kingdom, whose capital was at Mount Fura. It is located on the Sofala Bank in Sofala Province of Mozambique.-History:...
(Yçuf in Barros
João de Barros
João de Barros , called the Portuguese Livy, is one of the first great Portuguese historians, most famous for his Décadas da Ásia , a history of the Portuguese in India and Asia.-Early years:...
, Çufe in Goes) (apparently a nephew of the late great Emir Muhammad) to break away. He signed a treaty with the Portuguese in 1502, and followed it up by allowing the construction of a Portuguese factory and fort in Sofala in 1505.
It was in 1505 that Francisco de Almeida
Francisco de Almeida
Dom Francisco de Almeida , also known as "the Great Dom Francisco" , was a Portuguese nobleman, soldier and explorer. He distinguished himself as a counsellor to King John II of Portugal and later in the wars against the Moors and in the conquest of Granada in 1492...
brought his fleet into the harbor of Kilwa, and landed some 500 Portuguese soldiers to drive Emir Ibrahim out of the city. Almeida installed the aforementioned Muhammad Arcone on the throne, as a Portuguese vassal. Remembering constitutional proprieties, Arcone insisted that Micante, the son of the late sultan al-Fudail be his designated successor. The Portuguese erected a fortress (Fort Santiago) on Kilwa and left a garrison behind, under the command of Pedro Ferreira Fogaça to keep an eye on things.
Portuguese rule was not very welcome. Particularly grating was the imposition of Portuguese Mercantilist laws on the sultanate, forbidding all but Portuguese ships to carry trade to the principal coastal towns - essentially putting many leading Kilwan merchants out of business.
The Portuguese did not stay very long. In May, 1506, Muhammad Arcone was lured and assassinated by the sheikh of Tirendicunde (a relative of Emir Ibrahim). As per the pre-arranged succession rule, Micante ascended to the throne. But Fogaça, seeing that Micante's ascension was supported by the old faction of Emir Ibrahim, concluded he would not do as a Portuguese puppet. Consequently, he deposed Micante and installed Hussein ibn Muhammad, a son of Arcone, as the new sultan.
Chaos broke out in the city of Kilwa. Partisans of Micante (& Emir Ibrahim) seized control of much of the city, driving sultan Hussein (and the partisans of Arcone) to seek refuge by the Portuguese Fort Santiago. Street fighting and soon fires broke out. In the chaos, streams of Kilwan residents fled the city, leaving it practically deserted, save for a handful of roving partisan gangs and the terrified Portuguese garrison.
Hearing of the Kilwan chaos all the way in India, the Portuguese vice-roy Almeida dispatched an magistrate Nuno Vaz Pereira, to inquire into the matter. Arriving in late 1506, Pereira convened the competing sultans Micante and Hussein, and asked them present their cases. Pereira ruled in favor of Hussein, confirming him as sultan, but softened the blow by relieving the unpopular commander Fogaça and lifting the mercantilist restrictions on Kilwa shipping.
The Kilwan refugees returned and a modicum of peace resumed, but only briefly. For Hussein put it in his head to lead the Kilwan army against Tirendicunde, to avenge his father's murder. The town was brutally sacked, and numerous prisoners taken. Hussein then dispatched emissaries to all the vassal cities of the Kilwa Sultanate, ordering them to return to obedience, or else meet the same fate.
Fearing that Hussein's spate of tyranny might jeopordize Portuguese interests in East Africa, vice-roy Almeida reversed Pereira's decision, deposed Hussein and reinstated Micante.
Rulers of Kilwa Sultanate
The chronology of rulers of the Kilwa Sultanate is reported in a chronicle translated into Portuguese in the 16th C., and recorded by João de BarrosJoão de Barros
João de Barros , called the Portuguese Livy, is one of the first great Portuguese historians, most famous for his Décadas da Ásia , a history of the Portuguese in India and Asia.-Early years:...
(Decadas, Dec. I, Lib. 8, Cap. 6). There is another surviving chronicle by an unknown author, written in the early 16th century, and compiled in 1862 by (or for) sheikh Moheddin (Majid
Majid bin Said of Zanzibar
Sayyid Majid bin Said Al-Busaid was the first Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from October 19, 1856 to October 7, 1870....
?) of Zanzibar
Zanzibar
Zanzibar ,Persian: زنگبار, from suffix bār: "coast" and Zangi: "bruin" ; is a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania, in East Africa. It comprises the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of the mainland, and consists of numerous small islands and two large ones: Unguja , and Pemba...
(Strong, 1895). The Barros and Zanzibar chronicles are not always in concordance with each other. The following follows Barros in its outlines, but fills in details from the Zanzibar chronicle. Dates are approximate years of ascension (utilizing the list compiled in Bosworth (1996:p. 132))
Shirazi Era
- 1. (957 CECommon EraCommon Era ,abbreviated as CE, is an alternative designation for the calendar era originally introduced by Dionysius Exiguus in the 6th century, traditionally identified with Anno Domini .Dates before the year 1 CE are indicated by the usage of BCE, short for Before the Common Era Common Era...
) Ali ibn al-Hassan - founder of Kilwa - 2. (?) Muhammad ibn Ali ('Ali Bumale', son of previous) - ruled forty years. Had no children.
- 3. (996) Ali ibn Bashat ('Ali Busoloquete', nephew or cousin of previous) elected by Kilwa colonists. Was the son of Bashat, the brother of sultan Ali ibn al-Hassan; Bashat had been appointed by his brother as the first ruler of Mafia IslandMafia IslandMafia Island is part of the Tanzanian Spice Islands, together with Unguja and Pemba. As one of the six districts of the Pwani Region, Mafia Island is governed from the mainland, not from the semi-autonomous region of Zanzibar, of which it has never been considered to be a part.According to the...
. Bashat's son Ali ruled Kilwa for four and a half years. - 4. (1003) Dawud ibn Ali (son of previous) - deposed after four years by Matata Mandalima, king of the Changa/Xanga. Dawud fled to Mafia island, where he died.
- 5. Khalid ibn Bakr ('Ali Bonebaquer'; said to be nephew of Matata Mandalima), installed as ruler of Kilwa by the Changa. Ruled only two years, deposed in uprising by Persian colonists.
- 6. (1005) al-Hassan ibn Suleiman ibn Ali (nephew of the late Dawud) - installed by Persian colonists after uprising against Changa puppet, ruled 16 years.
- 7. (1042-1110?) Ali ibn Dawud I (son of Dawud, nephew of al-Hassan)- ruled 60 years.
- 8. Ali ibn Daud II (grandson of Ali ibn Dawud) - ruled 6 years, a deranged tyrant, deposed by people of Kilwa, and condemned to die in a well.
- 9. (1106) al-Hassan ibn Dawud (brother of Ali ibn Daud II) - elevated by people of Kilwa, to replace his despised brother. Ruled 24 years.
- 10. (1129) Suleiman (of royal lineage) - deposed and beheaded by people of Kilwa after only two years.
- 11. (1131) Dawud ibn Suleiman (son of previous, made his fortune in Sofala, before being called to Kilwa) - ruled 40 years.
- 12.(1170) Suleiman ibn al-Hassan ibn Daud (son of ninth sultan given above), one of the greatest of Kilwa sultans, credited for conquering much of the Swahili CoastSwahili CoastThe Swahili Coast refers to the coast or coastal area of East Africa inhabited by the Swahili people, mainly Kenya, Tanzania, and north Mozambique...
, bringing Sofala, Pemba, and Zanzibar under Kilwa's rule; responsible for erecting many buildings in Kilwa itself, including its stone fortress and palaces, transforming the city into a veritable metropolis. Ruled 18 years. - 13. (1189) Dawud ibn Suleiman (son of previous) ruled 2 years.
- 14. (1190) Talut ibn Suleiman (brother of previous) ruled 1 year
- 15. (1191) Hussein ibn Suleiman (brother of previous) - ruled 25 years. Died without heirs.
- 16. (1215) Khalid ibn Suleiman ('Ali Bonij' brother of previous) - ruled 10 years
- 17. (1225) ? ibn Suleiman ('Bone Soleiman', nephew of previous, son of ?) - ruled 40 years
- 18. (1263-7) Ali ibn Dawud (uncertain connection) - ruled 14 years.
- End of Persian Shirazi dynasty, beginning of Mahdali dynasty of Yemeni Arab sharifs, or what the Zanzibar chronicle calls the 'family of Abu al-Mawahib' -
Mahdali Era
- 19. (1277) al-Hassan ibn Talut (grandson of Ali ibn Dawud) - ruled 18 years; had a 'reputation as a great knight'.
- 20. (1294) Suleiman ibn Hassan (son of previous) - ruled 14 years; murdered by conspirators upon leaving a mosque. Partisans proclaimed his son Hassan ibn Suleiman ruler, but as he was on pilgrimage in Mecca at the time, the throne was temporarily passed to Hassan's brother Dawud.
- 21.(1308) Daud ibn Suleiman (son of previous) - ruled 2 years in name of his brother Hassan. Stepped down voluntarily.
- 22. (1310) al-Hassan ibn Suleiman 'Abu al-Mawahib' (brother of previous) - acclaimed earlier while absent in Mecca; ruled 24 years. Died without heirs.
- 23. (1333) Dawud ibn Suleiman (same as 21st, brother of previous) - second time on throne, this time in his own right. Ruled 24 years.
- 24. (1356) Suleiman ibn Dawud (son of previous) - first time, ruled only 20 days. Deposed by his uncle, Hussein.
- 25. (1356) Hussein ibn Suleiman al-Mat'un (uncle of previous) ruled 6 years. Died in battle against the "Bantu Almuli" on the mainland, without heirs.
- 26. (1362) Talut ibn Dawud (nephew of previous, brother of earlier Suleiman) - ruled only one year. Deposed by his brother, the ex-king Suleiman.
- 27. (1364) Suleiman ibn Dawud (brother of previous) - second time. 2 years and 4 months. Deposed by his uncle Suleiman
- 28. (1366) Suleiman ibn Suleiman ibn Hussein (uncle of previous) - ruled 24 years
- 29. (1389) Hussein ibn Suleiman (son of previous) - ruled 24 years
- 30. (1412) Muhammad ibn Suleiman 'al-Malik al-Adil' (Ladil, brother of previous) - ruled 9 years
- 31. (1421) Suleiman ibn Muhammad (son of previous) - ruled 22 years. Died without heirs. Said to have rebuilt the mosque of Kilwa
- 32. (1442) Ismail ibn Hussein (uncle of previous) - ruled 14 years. Challenged by pretender Sa'id ibn Hassan, who secured the support of Hassan ibn Abu Bakr, ruler of Zanzibar. The Zanzibaris assembled a coalition to seize Kilwa by force. But Ismail's ministers, vizier Suleiman and Emir Muhammad managed to bribe the key organizer of the expedition, who withdrew the Zanzibari troops and left pretender Sa'id stranded on the beach of Kilwa with only a small body of attendants. Although pardoned by Ismail, Sa'id went into hiding.
- 33. (1454) vizier Suleiman (vizier of previous) At death of sultan Ismail, in the first known usurpation by ministers, the vizier Suleiman and Emir Muhammad al-Mazlum launched a coup and seized power together, with Suleiman declaring himself Sultan. However, popular opinion was strongly against the vizier, so he decided to pass the throne over to the more popular Emir Muhammad.
- 34. (1454) Muhammad ibn al-Hussein ibn Muhammad ibn Suleiman al-Mazlum ('Emir Muhammad', noble co-conspirator with previous) According to Zanzibar chronicle, after the death of vizier Suleiman, Muhammad appointed the old pretender Sa'id ibn Hassan to the post as his own vizier. Muhammad died shortly after. Reigned for less than a year.(deposed, according to Barros).
- 35 (1455) Ahmad ibn Suleiman (son of the late vizier?), deposed within a year by partisans of the old royal family. (Barros omits Ahmad, says the partisans deposed Muhammad directly).
- 36 (1456) al-Hassan ibn Ismail (son of 32nd sultan Ismail), installed by coup. Ruled ten years.
- 37. (1466) Sa'id ibn al-Hassan/Hussein (son of previous, according to Barros; same old pretender (cf.32nd) according to Zanzibar chronicle) - ruled 10 years, Upon his death, the Kilwa Sultanate fell into disarray. There was another ministerial coup d'état.
- 38. (1476) Suleiman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn ('Vizier Suleiman') vizier seized throne after death of Sa'id, declared himself sultan and elevated his own brother, Muhammad Kiwabi, to the dignity of emir. But vizier-turned-sultan Suleiman's rule lasted little over a year.
- 39. (1477) Abdullah ibn al-Hassan (brother of 37th sultan Sa'id) elevated by people of Kilwa against usurping vizier Suleiman. Ruled one and half years.
- 40. (1478) Ali ibn Hassan (brother of previous). Ruled 1.5 years. Upon his death, Emir Muhammad Kiwabi (brother of the late vizier Suleiman) seized power, and installed his nephew al-Hassan as sultan.
- 41 (1479) al-Hassan ibn Suleiman (son of vizier Suleiman), first time, installed by his uncle, Emir Muhammad. But al-Hassan proved an unpopular sultan and was deposed by his own uncle after 6 years.
- 42. (1485) Sabhat ibn Muhammad ibn Suleiman (Xumbo, a scion of royal lineage, son of 31st sultan, al-Adil) installed by Emir Muhammad, after popular opposition to his first choice al-Hassan. Ruled one year, then died. According to Zanzibar chronicle, Emir Muhammad tried to install his nephew al-Hassan again.
- 43. (1486) al-Hassan ibn Suleiman (second time) installed by uncle Emir Muhammad once again, but popular opposition proved too strong. Emir Muhammad decided to depose al-Hassan once again and look for a suitable sultan from the royal dynasty.
- 44. (1490) Ibrahim ibn Muhammad (brother of Sabhat, another son of al-Adil) installed by Emir Muhammad to replace his nephew al-Hassan. But the deposed al-Hassan ibn Suleiman launched a coup attempt to depose Ibrahim, that resulted in quite some bloodshed. In the end, al-Hassan's ambitions were foiled by his uncle Emir Muhammad, who, seeking to restore order, declared unambiguously that Ibrahim, a descendant of kings, had precedence over al-Hassan, who was only of a family of viziers. al-Hassan driven into exile on the mainland. Ibrahim ruled for two years, until Emir Muhammad decided to depose him himself.
- 45. (1495) Muhammad ibn Kiwab ('Emir Muhammad Kiwabi', the powerful emir) declared himself sultan, only very briefly, probably just to show he can or to satisfy his curiosity or perhaps just to forestall a renewed bid by his exiled nephew al-Hassan while he sorted through other candidates. In any case, Muhammad abdicated soon after, and installed another royal family member, al-Fudail.
- 46. (1495) al-Fudail ibn Suleiman (Alfudail, nephew of Ibrahim, thus of royal blood) installed by Emir Muhammad, after his own abdication. This is 1495 AD (901 AH). Immediately after ascension, exiled ex-ruler Hassan ibn Suleiman returned with a mixed army of Bantus and Kilwan exiles to reclaim the throne. The sheikh of Zanzibar offered to mediate, and, through his good offices, al-Fudail even contemplated ceding the throne to Hassan and ending the quarrel. But Emir Muhammad refused to allow it. Instead, he promised al-Hassan an amnesty, but only if he returned to private life in Kilwa. While awaiting Hassan's reply to this offer, the great Emir Muhammad Kiwabi died rather suddenly. In the confusion, pretender Hassan infiltrated troops into Kilwa city, under the command of his own son Sa'id. Caught by city authorities, Sa'id invented a story about just 'preparing the house' for his father's peaceful return to Kilwa as a private citizen. To allay suspicions, Sa'id finally proposed to lead a Kilwan embassy, escorted by a squad of city troops, to his father's encampment to confirm his story. Thinking the crisis had been defused, at least until the embassy returned from its investigation, Kilwa let its guard down. But the embassy did not return. Rather, Sa'id led it to at trap, and it was massacred. The army of al-Hassan attacked that very same night. The surprised city rallied frantically to its defenses, and a great and bloody battle ensued outside the gates of the city. The Kilwans defeated al-Hassan and put an end to the perennial pretender. The victorious Sultan al-Fudail appointed a certain Ibrahim ibn Suleiman as emir, to replace the late Emir Muhammad. But this state of affairs only lasted a few years.
- End of Mahdali dynasty, beginning of a series of usurpers and Portuguese puppets -
Portuguese Era
- 47. (1499) Ibrahim ibn Suleiman ('Emir Ibrahim', Mir Habraemo in Portuguese) minister of Sultan al-Fudail; deposed and murdered the sultan and tooks power himself not as sultan, but in the name of an absent son of an earlier sultan Suleiman. Incensed, the regional vassals of the Kilwan Sultanate refuse to recognize the usurpation. Emir Ibrahim will be driven out and deposed by the Portuguese captain Francisco de AlmeidaFrancisco de AlmeidaDom Francisco de Almeida , also known as "the Great Dom Francisco" , was a Portuguese nobleman, soldier and explorer. He distinguished himself as a counsellor to King John II of Portugal and later in the wars against the Moors and in the conquest of Granada in 1492...
in 1505.
- 48. (1505) Muhammad ibn Rukn ad Din (Muhammad Arcone to Portuguese, Kilwan noble, not of royal lineage) installed by Francisco de Almeida as Portuguese vassal sultan of Kilwa. But remembering the importance of constitutional propriety, Muhammad immediately appointed royal prince Muntari, the son of late al-Fudail, as his successor. He was assassinated after a year.
- 49 (1506) Micante
See also
- Kilwa KisiwaniKilwa KisiwaniKilwa Kisiwani is a community on an island off the coast of East Africa, in present day Tanzania.- History :A document written around AD 1200 called al-Maqama al Kilwiyya discovered in Oman, gives details of a mission to reconvert Kilwa to Ibadism, as it had recently been effected by the Ghurabiyya...
- Swahili peopleSwahili peopleThe Swahili people are a Bantu ethnic group and culture found in East Africa, mainly in the coastal regions and the islands of Kenya, Tanzania and north Mozambique. According to JoshuaProject, the Swahili number in at around 1,328,000. The name Swahili is derived from the Arabic word Sawahil,...
- Swahili cultureSwahili cultureSwahili culture is the culture of the Swahili people living on the east coast of Tanzania, Kenya, and Mozambique as well as on the islands in the area, from Zanzibar to Comoros, who speak Swahili as their native language....
- Sultan al-Hasan ibn SulaimanSultan al-Hasan ibn SulaimanSultan al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman, often referred to as "Abu'l-Mawahib" , ruled the island of Kilwa Kisiwani, in present-day Tanzania, from 1310 until 1333....
- Shirazi (ethnic group)Shirazi (ethnic group)The Shirazi are a sub-group of the Swahili people living on the Swahili Coast of East Africa, especially on the islands of Zanzibar, Pemba and Comoros. Local traditions about their origin claim they are descended from merchant princes from Shiraz in Persia who settled along the Swahili Coast....
Sources
- João de BarrosJoão de BarrosJoão de Barros , called the Portuguese Livy, is one of the first great Portuguese historians, most famous for his Décadas da Ásia , a history of the Portuguese in India and Asia.-Early years:...
(1552–59) Décadas da Ásia: Dos feitos, que os Portuguezes fizeram no descubrimento, e conquista, dos mares, e terras do Oriente., esp. Dec. I, Lib. 8, Cap. 6 (p. 225ff) - Bosworth, C.E. (1996) The New Islamic Dynasaties: a chronological and genealogical manual. New York: Columbia University Press.
- Damião de Goes (1566–67) Crónica do Felicíssimo Rei D. Manuel
- Freeman-Grenville, G.S.P. (1962) The Medieval History of the Coast of Tanganyika, with special reference to recent archaeological discoveries London.
- Horton, M. and J. Middleton (2000) The Swahili: the social landscape of a mercantile society, Oxford: Blackwell
- Strong, S. Arthur (1895) "The History of Kilwa, edited from an Arabic MS", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, January (No volume number), pp. 385–431. online
- Theal, George McCall (1902) The Beginning of South African History. London: Unwin.