Kapala stingaree
Encyclopedia
The Kapala stingaree is a species
of stingray
in the family
Urolophidae, endemic to inshore waters off southeastern Queensland
and New South Wales
. It is commonly found on and around rocky reef
s at a depth of 10–130 m (32.8–426.5 ft). Reaching 51 cm (20.1 in) in length, the Kapala stingaree has a rounded, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc and a slender tail, which ends in a leaf-shaped caudal fin and bears lateral skin folds and a small dorsal fin
in front of the stinging spine. It has a distinctive bell-shaped curtain of skin between its nostrils. This species is greenish above, with a highly variable pattern of dark markings usually found outside and between the eyes, and over the back and tail.
Crustacean
s, in particular shrimp
and amphipods, constitute the predominant prey of the Kapala stingaree; small bony fishes and polychaete worms are also eaten. It is aplacental viviparous, with females normally gestating only one pup at a time, and provisioning it with histotroph ("uterine milk"). The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Near Threatened
; it is regularly taken incidentally
by commercial fisheries
, and is unlikely to be resilient against fishing pressure due to its low fecundity
and propensity for aborting its young when captured.
(CSIRO) researchers Gordon Yearsley and Peter Last described the Kapala stingaree, previously termed Urolophus "sp. A", in a 2006 issue of the scientific journal
Zootaxa. They named the new species in honor of the research ship FRV Kapala, which conducted a series of fishery
surveys off New South Wales
in 1980s and 1990s that contributed substantially to ichthyological
knowledge. On November 14, 1984, the Kapala collected the type specimen of this species, an adult male 35 cm (13.8 in) long, from the Tasman Sea
off Jervis Bay
. This ray may also be referred to as the banded stingaree.
, between Cape Moreton
in Queensland
to Disaster Bay in New South Wales
. This benthic, inshore species has been reported between the depths of 10 and 130 m (32.8 and 426.5 ft). Off Queensland, it is common in water deeper than 62 m (203.4 ft), while off New South Wales it is rare north of the Clarence River, and common south of it in water shallower than 50 m (164 ft). The Kapala stingaree prefers rocky reef
s and adjacent sandy flats, as well as seagrass
beds.
s with rounded posterior rims. There is a subtle knob on the rear margin of each nostril. Between the nostrils is a bell-shaped curtain of skin, with the posterior margin shallowly fringed and corners elongated into lobes; only the sparsely-spotted stingaree (U. paucimaculatus) has a similarly shaped nasal curtain. The mouth is small and contains 5–7 papillae (nipple-like structure) arranged in a W-shaped pattern on the floor. The lower jaw also bears a patch of prominent papillae, arranged to form a series of transverse ridges. The teeth have rhomboid
bases and are arranged in a quincunx
pattern; the crowns are blunt for teeth at the sides of the jaws, becoming higher and more pointed towards the middle of the jaw. There are 25 upper and 31–32 lower tooth rows. The five pairs of gill slit
s are S-shaped. The pelvic fins are small with rounded rear margins; males have short, stout claspers.
The slender, flattened tail measures 82–90% as long as the disc, and terminates in a low, leaf-shaped caudal fin; there is a prominent skin fold running along each side. A very thin, serrated stinging spine is positioned atop the tail about halfway along its length; immediate in front is a long, low dorsal fin
. The skin entirely lacks dermal denticles. The Kapala stingaree is greenish above, becoming pinkish toward the disc margins, and bears a variable pattern of dark markings that usually include a triangular blotch beneath each eye, a V-shaped bar between the eyes, a blotch at the base of the pelvic fins, and a pair of blotches in the middle of the disc that extend into stripes that run onto the tail. Not all individuals have all of these markings, and a few may be mottled or almost black on top. The underside is off-white with a wide, dusky band around the disc margin. The tail is pale with a dark midline stripe above and sometimes scattered dark blotches below; the dorsal fin is greenish and the caudal fin is light with a dark edge in adults, and entirely dark in juveniles. The largest known specimen measures 51 cm (20.1 in) long.
(mainly palaemonids
) and amphipods (mainly ampeliscids
), which together make up some 70% of its diet by volume. Important secondary prey are penaeid prawn
s and small bony fishes, while crab
s, polychaete worms, and isopods are rarely consumed. Dietary composition is largely consistent across all ages, though older rays tend to consume proportionately more amphipods and fewer shrimp than younger rays. Like other stingrays, this species is aplacental viviparous with the developing embryo
s sustained by histotroph ("uterine milk") produced by the mother. Typically a litter consists of only a single pup, born at around 15 cm (5.9 in) long. Males reach sexual maturity
at around 28–31 cm (11–12.2 in) long.
in prawn trawls utilized by the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (ECTF) and the New South Wales Ocean Trawl Fishery (OTF), which may have led to a decline in this species as has been documented for other stingarees in the region. Given its small distribution, low reproductive rate, and tendency to abort its young when captured, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed the Kapala stingaree as Near Threatened
. It does not appear to have benefited from the installation of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs).
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
of stingray
Myliobatiformes
Myliobatiformes is one of the four orders of batoids, cartilaginous fishes related to sharks. They were formerly included in the order Rajiformes, but more recent phylogenetic studies have shown that the myliobatiforms are a monophyletic group, and that its more derived members evolved their...
in the family
Family (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
Urolophidae, endemic to inshore waters off southeastern Queensland
Queensland
Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern section of the mainland continent. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean...
and New South Wales
New South Wales
New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
. It is commonly found on and around rocky reef
Reef
In nautical terminology, a reef is a rock, sandbar, or other feature lying beneath the surface of the water ....
s at a depth of 10–130 m (32.8–426.5 ft). Reaching 51 cm (20.1 in) in length, the Kapala stingaree has a rounded, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc and a slender tail, which ends in a leaf-shaped caudal fin and bears lateral skin folds and a small dorsal fin
Dorsal fin
A dorsal fin is a fin located on the backs of various unrelated marine and freshwater vertebrates, including most fishes, marine mammals , and the ichthyosaurs...
in front of the stinging spine. It has a distinctive bell-shaped curtain of skin between its nostrils. This species is greenish above, with a highly variable pattern of dark markings usually found outside and between the eyes, and over the back and tail.
Crustacean
Crustacean
Crustaceans form a very large group of arthropods, usually treated as a subphylum, which includes such familiar animals as crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill and barnacles. The 50,000 described species range in size from Stygotantulus stocki at , to the Japanese spider crab with a leg span...
s, in particular shrimp
Shrimp
Shrimp are swimming, decapod crustaceans classified in the infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh and salt water. Adult shrimp are filter feeding benthic animals living close to the bottom. They can live in schools and can swim rapidly backwards. Shrimp are an important...
and amphipods, constitute the predominant prey of the Kapala stingaree; small bony fishes and polychaete worms are also eaten. It is aplacental viviparous, with females normally gestating only one pup at a time, and provisioning it with histotroph ("uterine milk"). The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Near Threatened
Near Threatened
Near Threatened is a conservation status assigned to species or lower taxa that may be considered threatened with extinction in the near future, although it does not currently qualify for the threatened status...
; it is regularly taken incidentally
Bycatch
The term “bycatch” is usually used for fish caught unintentionally in a fishery while intending to catch other fish. It may however also indicate untargeted catch in other forms of animal harvesting or collecting...
by commercial fisheries
Commercial fishing
Commercial fishing is the activity of catching fish and other seafood for commercial profit, mostly from wild fisheries. It provides a large quantity of food to many countries around the world, but those who practice it as an industry must often pursue fish far into the ocean under adverse conditions...
, and is unlikely to be resilient against fishing pressure due to its low fecundity
Fecundity
Fecundity, derived from the word fecund, generally refers to the ability to reproduce. In demography, fecundity is the potential reproductive capacity of an individual or population. In biology, the definition is more equivalent to fertility, or the actual reproductive rate of an organism or...
and propensity for aborting its young when captured.
Taxonomy
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research OrganisationCommonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation is the national government body for scientific research in Australia...
(CSIRO) researchers Gordon Yearsley and Peter Last described the Kapala stingaree, previously termed Urolophus "sp. A", in a 2006 issue of the scientific journal
Scientific journal
In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. There are thousands of scientific journals in publication, and many more have been published at various points in the past...
Zootaxa. They named the new species in honor of the research ship FRV Kapala, which conducted a series of fishery
Fishery
Generally, a fishery is an entity engaged in raising or harvesting fish which is determined by some authority to be a fishery. According to the FAO, a fishery is typically defined in terms of the "people involved, species or type of fish, area of water or seabed, method of fishing, class of boats,...
surveys off New South Wales
New South Wales
New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
in 1980s and 1990s that contributed substantially to ichthyological
Ichthyology
Ichthyology is the branch of zoology devoted to the study of fish. This includes skeletal fish , cartilaginous fish , and jawless fish...
knowledge. On November 14, 1984, the Kapala collected the type specimen of this species, an adult male 35 cm (13.8 in) long, from the Tasman Sea
Tasman Sea
The Tasman Sea is the large body of water between Australia and New Zealand, approximately across. It extends 2,800 km from north to south. It is a south-western segment of the South Pacific Ocean. The sea was named after the Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman, the first recorded European...
off Jervis Bay
Jervis Bay
Jervis Bay is a large bay bounded by the state of New South Wales, the Jervis Bay Territory, and a detached enclave of the Australian Capital Territory. HMAS Creswell is located between Jervis Bay Village and Greenpatch in the Jervis Bay Territory.-History:...
. This ray may also be referred to as the banded stingaree.
Distribution and habitat
The range of the Kapala stingaree is limited to the eastern coast of AustraliaAustralia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
, between Cape Moreton
Cape Moreton
Cape Moreton is a rocky headland located at the north eastern tip of Moreton Island in South East Queensland, Australia. The surrounding area is part of the Moreton Island National Park. 5 km north-west of Cape Moreton is Flinders Reef....
in Queensland
Queensland
Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern section of the mainland continent. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean...
to Disaster Bay in New South Wales
New South Wales
New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
. This benthic, inshore species has been reported between the depths of 10 and 130 m (32.8 and 426.5 ft). Off Queensland, it is common in water deeper than 62 m (203.4 ft), while off New South Wales it is rare north of the Clarence River, and common south of it in water shallower than 50 m (164 ft). The Kapala stingaree prefers rocky reef
Reef
In nautical terminology, a reef is a rock, sandbar, or other feature lying beneath the surface of the water ....
s and adjacent sandy flats, as well as seagrass
Seagrass
Seagrasses are flowering plants from one of four plant families , all in the order Alismatales , which grow in marine, fully saline environments.-Ecology:...
beds.
Description
The pectoral fin disc of the Kapala stingaree is more or less diamond-shaped with rounded outer corners and posterior margins, and is slightly wider than long. The leading margins of the disc are nearly straight and converge at an obtuse angle on the fleshy, barely protruding snout. The eyes are of modest size and followed by teardrop-shaped spiracleSpiracle
Spiracles are openings on the surface of some animals that usually lead to respiratory systems.-Vertebrates:The spiracle is a small hole behind each eye that opens to the mouth in some fishes. In the primitive jawless fish the first gill opening immediately behind the mouth is essentially similar...
s with rounded posterior rims. There is a subtle knob on the rear margin of each nostril. Between the nostrils is a bell-shaped curtain of skin, with the posterior margin shallowly fringed and corners elongated into lobes; only the sparsely-spotted stingaree (U. paucimaculatus) has a similarly shaped nasal curtain. The mouth is small and contains 5–7 papillae (nipple-like structure) arranged in a W-shaped pattern on the floor. The lower jaw also bears a patch of prominent papillae, arranged to form a series of transverse ridges. The teeth have rhomboid
Rhomboid
Traditionally, in two-dimensional geometry, a rhomboid is a parallelogram in which adjacent sides are of unequal lengths and angles are oblique.A parallelogram with sides of equal length is a rhombus but not a rhomboid....
bases and are arranged in a quincunx
Quincunx
A quincunx is a geometric pattern consisting of five points arranged in a cross, that is five coplanar points, four of them forming a square or rectangle and a fifth at its center...
pattern; the crowns are blunt for teeth at the sides of the jaws, becoming higher and more pointed towards the middle of the jaw. There are 25 upper and 31–32 lower tooth rows. The five pairs of gill slit
Gill slit
Gill slits are individual openings to gills, i.e., multiple gill arches, which lack a single outer cover. Such gills are characteristic of Cartilaginous fish such as sharks, rays, sawfish, and guitarfish. Most of these have five pairs, but a few species have 6 or 7 pairs...
s are S-shaped. The pelvic fins are small with rounded rear margins; males have short, stout claspers.
The slender, flattened tail measures 82–90% as long as the disc, and terminates in a low, leaf-shaped caudal fin; there is a prominent skin fold running along each side. A very thin, serrated stinging spine is positioned atop the tail about halfway along its length; immediate in front is a long, low dorsal fin
Dorsal fin
A dorsal fin is a fin located on the backs of various unrelated marine and freshwater vertebrates, including most fishes, marine mammals , and the ichthyosaurs...
. The skin entirely lacks dermal denticles. The Kapala stingaree is greenish above, becoming pinkish toward the disc margins, and bears a variable pattern of dark markings that usually include a triangular blotch beneath each eye, a V-shaped bar between the eyes, a blotch at the base of the pelvic fins, and a pair of blotches in the middle of the disc that extend into stripes that run onto the tail. Not all individuals have all of these markings, and a few may be mottled or almost black on top. The underside is off-white with a wide, dusky band around the disc margin. The tail is pale with a dark midline stripe above and sometimes scattered dark blotches below; the dorsal fin is greenish and the caudal fin is light with a dark edge in adults, and entirely dark in juveniles. The largest known specimen measures 51 cm (20.1 in) long.
Biology and ecology
The Kapala stingaree feeds primarily on benthic shrimpShrimp
Shrimp are swimming, decapod crustaceans classified in the infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh and salt water. Adult shrimp are filter feeding benthic animals living close to the bottom. They can live in schools and can swim rapidly backwards. Shrimp are an important...
(mainly palaemonids
Palaemonidae
Palaemonidae is a family of crustaceans of the order Decapoda. They belong to the infraorder Caridea, which contains the true shrimp; while some freshwater palaemonid species are known as "prawns", the family belongs to the suborder Pleocyemata like all true shrimp, whereas the true prawns are...
) and amphipods (mainly ampeliscids
Ampeliscidae
Ampeliscidae is a family of amphipods, distinct enough to warrant placement in a monotypic superfamily Ampeliscoidea. They are benthic, found at the bottom of seas and oceans. They are distributed worldwide, and are often abundant in areas with fine sediments...
), which together make up some 70% of its diet by volume. Important secondary prey are penaeid prawn
Penaeidae
Penaeidae is a family of prawns, although they are often referred to as penaeid shrimp. It contains many species of economic importance, such as the tiger prawn , whiteleg shrimp, Atlantic white shrimp and Indian prawn. Many prawns are the subject of commercial fishery, and farming, both in marine...
s and small bony fishes, while crab
Crab
True crabs are decapod crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" , or where the reduced abdomen is entirely hidden under the thorax...
s, polychaete worms, and isopods are rarely consumed. Dietary composition is largely consistent across all ages, though older rays tend to consume proportionately more amphipods and fewer shrimp than younger rays. Like other stingrays, this species is aplacental viviparous with the developing embryo
Embryo
An embryo is a multicellular diploid eukaryote in its earliest stage of development, from the time of first cell division until birth, hatching, or germination...
s sustained by histotroph ("uterine milk") produced by the mother. Typically a litter consists of only a single pup, born at around 15 cm (5.9 in) long. Males reach sexual maturity
Sexual maturity
Sexual maturity is the age or stage when an organism can reproduce. It is sometimes considered synonymous with adulthood, though the two are distinct...
at around 28–31 cm (11–12.2 in) long.
Human interactions
Significant numbers of Kapala stingarees are caught incidentallyBycatch
The term “bycatch” is usually used for fish caught unintentionally in a fishery while intending to catch other fish. It may however also indicate untargeted catch in other forms of animal harvesting or collecting...
in prawn trawls utilized by the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (ECTF) and the New South Wales Ocean Trawl Fishery (OTF), which may have led to a decline in this species as has been documented for other stingarees in the region. Given its small distribution, low reproductive rate, and tendency to abort its young when captured, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed the Kapala stingaree as Near Threatened
Near Threatened
Near Threatened is a conservation status assigned to species or lower taxa that may be considered threatened with extinction in the near future, although it does not currently qualify for the threatened status...
. It does not appear to have benefited from the installation of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs).