Kandidat
Encyclopedia
The Candidate of Sciences (C.Sc.) degree is a first post-graduate scientific degree
in some former Eastern Bloc
countries, such as Russia and Ukraine, which is awarded for original research that constitutes a significant contribution to a scientific field. The degree was first introduced in the USSR on January 13, 1934, by a decision of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. It roughly corresponds to the Doctor of Philosophy
degree (PhD) as awarded in many English-speaking countries as it allows its holders to reach the level of the Associate Professor (Docent
).
However, in order to become a full Professor, a Doktor Nauk
degree is required, in the same way that the Habilitation
is required in Germany
, as well as the PhD dissertation and a second book in the United States
and the United Kingdom
. On the other hand, Immigration New Zealand places both Candidate of Sciences and Doktor Nauk at "Level 10" (Doctors Level, which is the highest level there). Only holders of master's and specialist's degrees are eligible for Candidate of Sciences programs.
The highest attainable degree, one level higher than the Candidate of Sciences, is the Doktor nauk
, which is roughly analogous to the Habilitation
in Germany
, Poland
, Austria
and Switzerland
, the senior doctorate in the United Kingdom
and the Habilitation à diriger des recherches in France
, as it is required for the rank of the full Professor
.
) or a scientific research institution (such as an institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences
network). It can also be carried out without a direct connection to the academy. In exceptional cases, the Candidate of Sciences degree may be awarded on the basis of published scientific works.
A necessary prerequisite is passing an examination called "candidate minimum". In the Soviet Union, the candidate minimum included exams in the specialty field of the "dissertant", in a foreign language of his/her choice and in Scientific communism
. In post-Soviet Russia
and other post-Soviet states, the latter examination was replaced by the one in Philosophy
, and in Russia recently in History and philosophy of science
; in Ukraine
it is still Philosophy.
The dissertation is presented (defended) at the accredited educational or scientific institutions before a committee called the Scientific Council. The Council consists of about 20 members, who are the leading specialists (including the academicians) in the field of the dissertation and who have been selected and approved to serve on the Council. The seeker of the degree must have an official "research supervisor". The dissertation must be delivered together with official references of several reviewers, called "opponents". In a procedure called the "defense of the dissertation" the dissertation is summarized before the Commission, followed by speeches by the opponents or the reading of their references, and replies to the comments of the opponents and question of the Commission members by the aspirant.
If the defense is successful (66.6% majority of votes by the secret ballot voting by the members of the Council), it is recommended and later must be approved by the central state-wide board called Higher Attestation Commission
or "Vysshaya attestacionnaya komissiya" or VAK (or by similar authority in other applicable countries).
in 1948, the supreme academic authority was represented by the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences
, newly established in 1953. The degree could also be awarded by the Slovak Academy of Sciences
and universities.
The abbreviation of the degree is CSc. , added behind the bearer's name and a comma.
There also have been other academic degrees in Czechoslovakia and its successional states, that incorporate the "Dr." abbreviation, e.g.
and others. These doctor degrees are not to be confused with a Ph.D., although its holders are addressed "doctor". Technically it is an extension of a master-like degree, always stated before names and awarded for elaborating a so called rigorous thesis and defending it at a viva voce
(rigorous) exam. Unlike Ph.D., no post-graduate studies are required.
MUDr in technical and economic university programs), enroll in an approximately three-year post-graduate program and defend their dissertation before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university.
In the USSR, there was required at least three original scientific papers published and/or submitted. At least one paper should be in the journal listed by VAK. In Ukraine now, all the three publications have to be published in the journals listed by VAK.
Original Russian translation for Candidate of Sciences is kandidat nauk . In 1971, there were 249,200 scientists holding the Candidate degree.
Previously, there was also the degree of "candidate of naval sciences". For some time (in the 1940s) the degree of "candidate of art criticism" called "candidate of art criticism sciences".
Some specialties permit the award of the candidate degree for several variants of branches of science, depending on the dominant subject area of dissertation, e.g., specialty 02.00.04 (physical chemistry
) can be awarded the degree of candidate of physico-mathematical, technical, or chemical sciences. However, for each one dissertation only one branch of science can be chosen.
Academic degree
An academic degree is a position and title within a college or university that is usually awarded in recognition of the recipient having either satisfactorily completed a prescribed course of study or having conducted a scholarly endeavour deemed worthy of his or her admission to the degree...
in some former Eastern Bloc
Eastern bloc
The term Eastern Bloc or Communist Bloc refers to the former communist states of Eastern and Central Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact...
countries, such as Russia and Ukraine, which is awarded for original research that constitutes a significant contribution to a scientific field. The degree was first introduced in the USSR on January 13, 1934, by a decision of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. It roughly corresponds to the Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as Ph.D., PhD, D.Phil., or DPhil , in English-speaking countries, is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities...
degree (PhD) as awarded in many English-speaking countries as it allows its holders to reach the level of the Associate Professor (Docent
Docent
Docent is a title at some European universities to denote a specific academic appointment within a set structure of academic ranks below professor . Docent is also used at some universities generically for a person who has the right to teach...
).
However, in order to become a full Professor, a Doktor Nauk
Doktor nauk
Doktor nauk is a higher doctoral degree, the second and the highest post-graduate academic degree in the Soviet Union, Russia and in many post-Soviet states. Sometimes referred to as Dr. Hab. The prerequisite is the first degree, Kandidat nauk which is informally regarded equivalent to Ph.D....
degree is required, in the same way that the Habilitation
Habilitation
Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a scholar can achieve by his or her own pursuit in several European and Asian countries. Earned after obtaining a research doctorate, such as a PhD, habilitation requires the candidate to write a professorial thesis based on independent...
is required in Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
, as well as the PhD dissertation and a second book in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
and the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
. On the other hand, Immigration New Zealand places both Candidate of Sciences and Doktor Nauk at "Level 10" (Doctors Level, which is the highest level there). Only holders of master's and specialist's degrees are eligible for Candidate of Sciences programs.
The highest attainable degree, one level higher than the Candidate of Sciences, is the Doktor nauk
Doktor nauk
Doktor nauk is a higher doctoral degree, the second and the highest post-graduate academic degree in the Soviet Union, Russia and in many post-Soviet states. Sometimes referred to as Dr. Hab. The prerequisite is the first degree, Kandidat nauk which is informally regarded equivalent to Ph.D....
, which is roughly analogous to the Habilitation
Habilitation
Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a scholar can achieve by his or her own pursuit in several European and Asian countries. Earned after obtaining a research doctorate, such as a PhD, habilitation requires the candidate to write a professorial thesis based on independent...
in Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
, Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
, Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
and Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
, the senior doctorate in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and the Habilitation à diriger des recherches in France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, as it is required for the rank of the full Professor
Professor
A professor is a scholarly teacher; the precise meaning of the term varies by country. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a "person who professes" being usually an expert in arts or sciences; a teacher of high rank...
.
Procedure for attaining the degree
The work on a dissertation is commonly carried out during a postgraduate study period called aspirantura. It is performed either within an educational institution (such as a universityUniversity
A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university is an organisation that provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education...
) or a scientific research institution (such as an institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Russian Academy of Sciences
The Russian Academy of Sciences consists of the national academy of Russia and a network of scientific research institutes from across the Russian Federation as well as auxiliary scientific and social units like libraries, publishers and hospitals....
network). It can also be carried out without a direct connection to the academy. In exceptional cases, the Candidate of Sciences degree may be awarded on the basis of published scientific works.
A necessary prerequisite is passing an examination called "candidate minimum". In the Soviet Union, the candidate minimum included exams in the specialty field of the "dissertant", in a foreign language of his/her choice and in Scientific communism
Scientific Communism
Scientific communism was one of the three major ingredients of Marxism-Leninism as taught in the Soviet Union in all institutions of higher education and pursued in the corresponding research institutions, and departments...
. In post-Soviet Russia
History of post-Soviet Russia
With the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 29 May 1991, the Russian Federation became an independent country.Russia was the largest of the fifteen republics that made up the Soviet Union, accounting for over 60% of the gross domestic product and over 50% of the Soviet population. Russians also...
and other post-Soviet states, the latter examination was replaced by the one in Philosophy
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
, and in Russia recently in History and philosophy of science
History and philosophy of science
The history and philosophy of science is an academic discipline that encompasses the philosophy of science and the history of science. Although many scholars in the field are trained primarily as either historians or as philosophers, there are degree-granting departments of HPS at several...
; in Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
it is still Philosophy.
The dissertation is presented (defended) at the accredited educational or scientific institutions before a committee called the Scientific Council. The Council consists of about 20 members, who are the leading specialists (including the academicians) in the field of the dissertation and who have been selected and approved to serve on the Council. The seeker of the degree must have an official "research supervisor". The dissertation must be delivered together with official references of several reviewers, called "opponents". In a procedure called the "defense of the dissertation" the dissertation is summarized before the Commission, followed by speeches by the opponents or the reading of their references, and replies to the comments of the opponents and question of the Commission members by the aspirant.
If the defense is successful (66.6% majority of votes by the secret ballot voting by the members of the Council), it is recommended and later must be approved by the central state-wide board called Higher Attestation Commission
Higher Attestation Commission
Higher Attestation Commission is a name of a national government agency in Russia, Ukraine and some other post-Soviet states that oversees awarding of advanced academic degrees...
or "Vysshaya attestacionnaya komissiya" or VAK (or by similar authority in other applicable countries).
Former Czechoslovakia
In Czechoslovakia, the Candidate and Doctor of Sciences , degrees were modeled precisely after the Soviet one by Law 60/1953 in 1953. Requirements to attain the degree were thus literally the same as in the USSR. Since all Czechoslovak top academic research institutions were dissolved after the Communist PutschCzechoslovak coup d'état of 1948
The Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948 – in Communist historiography known as "Victorious February" – was an event late that February in which the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, with Soviet backing, assumed undisputed control over the government of Czechoslovakia, ushering in over four decades...
in 1948, the supreme academic authority was represented by the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences
Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences
The Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences was established in 1953 to be the scientific center for Czechoslovakia. It was succeeded by the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic in 1992.-History:...
, newly established in 1953. The degree could also be awarded by the Slovak Academy of Sciences
Slovak Academy of Sciences
The Slovak Academy of Sciences SAV is the main scientific and research institution in Slovakia fostering basic and strategic basic research...
and universities.
The abbreviation of the degree is CSc. , added behind the bearer's name and a comma.
There also have been other academic degrees in Czechoslovakia and its successional states, that incorporate the "Dr." abbreviation, e.g.
- JUDr.
- PhDr.
- RNDr.
and others. These doctor degrees are not to be confused with a Ph.D., although its holders are addressed "doctor". Technically it is an extension of a master-like degree, always stated before names and awarded for elaborating a so called rigorous thesis and defending it at a viva voce
Viva voce
Viva voce is a Latin phrase literally meaning "with living voice," but most often translated as "by word of mouth."It may also refer to:*Italian for "live voice."*Voice vote in a deliberative assembly...
(rigorous) exam. Unlike Ph.D., no post-graduate studies are required.
- MUDr. is a "Doctor of Medicine" degree equivalent to the North-American MDDoctor of MedicineDoctor of Medicine is a doctoral degree for physicians. The degree is granted by medical schools...
, attained after 6-year university studies.
- MVDr. is a "Doctor of Veterinary" akin to DVM.
- RSDr. was a quasi-degree, awarded exclusively to functionaries of the Communist Party of CzechoslovakiaCommunist Party of CzechoslovakiaThe Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, in Czech and in Slovak: Komunistická strana Československa was a Communist and Marxist-Leninist political party in Czechoslovakia that existed between 1921 and 1992....
(KSČ) during the Communist era, who either or not "graduated" from the Political College of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. The leading subject taught was Marxism-LeninismMarxism-LeninismMarxism–Leninism is a communist ideology, officially based upon the theories of Marxism and Vladimir Lenin, that promotes the development and creation of a international communist society through the leadership of a vanguard party over a revolutionary socialist state that represents a dictatorship...
and there was no need to have completed even a secondary school to attain the degree. RSDr. was also possible to attain at some military universities, however, contrary to the previous case, the applicant had to pass further exams.
Czech Republic
Granting CSc. was abolished in 1998 and replaced with Ph.D. or Th.D. An applicant is required to have master's degree (or its equivalent, e.g. Engineer (Ing.) or Doctor of MedicineDoctor of Medicine
Doctor of Medicine is a doctoral degree for physicians. The degree is granted by medical schools...
MUDr in technical and economic university programs), enroll in an approximately three-year post-graduate program and defend their dissertation before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university.
Slovakia
Candidate was abolished in 1996 and replaced with PhD. . Requirements are similar to the Czech system.Former Soviet Union, Russia, Ukraine
Original Russian translation for Candidate of Sciences is kandidat nauk . In 1971, there were 249,200 scientists holding the Candidate degree.
Branches of science
Depending on the specialty of research in the dissertation, a candidate is awarded one of the following degrees:
|
Previously, there was also the degree of "candidate of naval sciences". For some time (in the 1940s) the degree of "candidate of art criticism" called "candidate of art criticism sciences".
Some specialties permit the award of the candidate degree for several variants of branches of science, depending on the dominant subject area of dissertation, e.g., specialty 02.00.04 (physical chemistry
Physical chemistry
Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts...
) can be awarded the degree of candidate of physico-mathematical, technical, or chemical sciences. However, for each one dissertation only one branch of science can be chosen.