Independence of Peru
Encyclopedia
The Peruvian War of Independence was a series of military conflicts beginning in 1809 that culminated in the proclamation of the independence of Peru
by José de San Martín
on July 28, 1821. During the previous decade Peru had been a stronghold for royalists, who fought those in favor of independence in Upper Peru, Quito
and Chile. The wars of independence took place with the background of the 1780-1781 uprising by indigenous leader Túpac Amaru II
and the earlier removal of Upper Peru
and the Río de la Plata
regions from the Viceroyalty of Peru
. Because of this the viceroy often had the support of the "Lima oligarchy," who saw their elite interests threatened by popular rebellion and were opposed to the new commercial class in Buenos Aires
.
(1807–1814) central authority in the Spanish Empire
was lost and many regions established autonomous junta
s. The viceroy of Peru, José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa
was instrumental in organizing armies to suppress uprisings in Upper Peru and to defend the region from armies sent by the juntas of the Río de la Plata. After success of the royalist armies, Absacal annexed Upper Peru to the viceroyalty, which benefited the Lima merchants as trade from the silver-rich region was now directed to the Pacific. Because of this, Peru remained strongly royalist and participated in the political reforms implemented by the Cádiz Cortes
(1810–1814), despite Abascal's resistance. Peru was represented at the first session of the Cortes by seven deputies
and local cabildo
s became elected, representative bodies. Therefore Peru became the second to last redoubt of the Spanish Monarchy in South America
, after Upper Peru. Peru eventually succumbed to patriot armies after the decisive continental campaigns of José de San Martín
(1820–1823) and Simón Bolívar
(1823–1825).
in 1811 and 1813. One significant movement, led by Natives
in Huánuco, began on February 22, 1812. It involved various leaders, including curaca
s and township magistrates (alcaldes pedáneos), but was suppressed within a few weeks. More enduring was the rebellion of Cuzco from 1814 to 1815.
The rebellion began in a confrontation between the Constitutional Cabildo and the Audiencia of Cuzco over the administration of the city. Cabildo officials and their allies were arrested by the Audiencia. Criollo
leaders appealed to retired brigadier Mateo Pumacahua
, who was curaca of Chinchero
, and decades earlier had been instrumental in suppressing the rebellion of Túpac Amaru II. Pumacahua joined the Criollo leaders in forming a junta on August 3 in Cuzco, which demanded the complete implementation of the liberal reforms of the Spanish Constitution of 1812
. After some victories in southern Peru and Upper Peru, the rebellion was quashed by mid-1815.
San Martín organized a dual land and sea campaign after wrestling Chile from the royalists at the Battle of Maipú
. Lord Cochrane
assisted in creating a Chilean Navy
, which transported the fighting troops from Chile to the Paracas Peninsula
in 1820. Cochrane then launched a sea campaign against the Spanish fleet in the Pacific. San Martín proclaimed Peruvian independence after reaching Lima
the following year. Royalist strongholds remained throughout the country and in Upper Peru, so it was not until four years later that the Spanish Monarchy was definitively defeated at the Battle of Ayacucho
by troops under the command of Antonio José de Sucre
. Upper Peru was once again separated from Peru in 1825 by an Upper Peruvian constituent congress, despite opposition to the plan by Bolívar.
s, made the organization of the country excessively difficult. Only three civilian
s: Manuel Pardo
, Nicolás de Piérola
and Francisco García Calderón
would accede to the presidency in the first seventy-five years of independent life. In 1837, the Peru-Bolivian Confederation
was created but, it was dissolved two years later due to a combined military intervention of Peruvian patriots and the Chilean military.
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
by José de San Martín
José de San Martín
José Francisco de San Martín, known simply as Don José de San Martín , was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from Spain.Born in Yapeyú, Corrientes , he left his mother country at the...
on July 28, 1821. During the previous decade Peru had been a stronghold for royalists, who fought those in favor of independence in Upper Peru, Quito
Ecuadorian War of Independence
The Ecuadorian War of Independence was fought from 1820 to 1822 between several South American armies and Spain over control of the lands of the Royal Audience of Quito, a Spanish colonial administrative jurisdiction from which would eventually emerge the modern Republic of Ecuador...
and Chile. The wars of independence took place with the background of the 1780-1781 uprising by indigenous leader Túpac Amaru II
Túpac Amaru II
Túpac Amaru II was a leader of an indigenous uprising in 1780 against the Spanish in Peru...
and the earlier removal of Upper Peru
Upper Peru
Upper Peru was the region in the Viceroyalty of Peru, and after 1776, the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, comprising the governorships of Potosí, La Paz, Cochabamba, Los Chiquitos, Moxos and Charcas...
and the Río de la Plata
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, , was the last and most short-lived Viceroyalty of the Spanish Empire in America.The Viceroyalty was established in 1776 out of several former Viceroyalty of Perú dependencies that mainly extended over the Río de la Plata basin, roughly the present day...
regions from the Viceroyalty of Peru
Viceroyalty of Peru
Created in 1542, the Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima...
. Because of this the viceroy often had the support of the "Lima oligarchy," who saw their elite interests threatened by popular rebellion and were opposed to the new commercial class in Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires is the capital and largest city of Argentina, and the second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after São Paulo. It is located on the western shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent...
.
History
During the Peninsular WarPeninsular War
The Peninsular War was a war between France and the allied powers of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war began when French and Spanish armies crossed Spain and invaded Portugal in 1807. Then, in 1808, France turned on its...
(1807–1814) central authority in the Spanish Empire
Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies administered directly by Spain in Europe, in America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was therefore one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its world power....
was lost and many regions established autonomous junta
Junta (Peninsular War)
In the Napoleonic era, junta was the name chosen by several local administrations formed in Spain during the Peninsular War as a patriotic alternative to the official administration toppled by the French invaders...
s. The viceroy of Peru, José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa
José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa
José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa, 1st Marquis of La Concordia , was a Spanish military officer and colonial administrator in America...
was instrumental in organizing armies to suppress uprisings in Upper Peru and to defend the region from armies sent by the juntas of the Río de la Plata. After success of the royalist armies, Absacal annexed Upper Peru to the viceroyalty, which benefited the Lima merchants as trade from the silver-rich region was now directed to the Pacific. Because of this, Peru remained strongly royalist and participated in the political reforms implemented by the Cádiz Cortes
Cádiz Cortes
The Cádiz Cortes were sessions of the national legislative body which met in the safe haven of Cádiz during the French occupation of Spain during the Napoleonic Wars...
(1810–1814), despite Abascal's resistance. Peru was represented at the first session of the Cortes by seven deputies
Deputy (legislator)
A deputy is a legislator in many countries, particularly those with legislatures styled as a 'Chamber of Deputies' or 'National Assembly'.-List of countries:This is an list of countries using the term 'deputy' or one of its cognates....
and local cabildo
Cabildo (council)
For a discussion of the contemporary Spanish and Latin American cabildo, see Ayuntamiento.A cabildo or ayuntamiento was a former Spanish, colonial administrative council that governed a municipality. Cabildos were sometimes appointed, sometimes elected, but were considered to be representative of...
s became elected, representative bodies. Therefore Peru became the second to last redoubt of the Spanish Monarchy in South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
, after Upper Peru. Peru eventually succumbed to patriot armies after the decisive continental campaigns of José de San Martín
José de San Martín
José Francisco de San Martín, known simply as Don José de San Martín , was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from Spain.Born in Yapeyú, Corrientes , he left his mother country at the...
(1820–1823) and Simón Bolívar
Simón Bolívar
Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios Ponte y Yeiter, commonly known as Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan military and political leader...
(1823–1825).
Junta movements
Despite the royalist tendencies of Peru, junta movements did emerge, often fomented by the approach of patriot armies from Buenos Aires. There were two short-lived uprisings in the southern city of TacnaTacna
- Rail :Tacna is served by a cross-border standard gauge railway to Arica, Chile.It is also the location of the National Railway Museum of Peru.-Air:Tacna is served by the Crnl. FAP...
in 1811 and 1813. One significant movement, led by Natives
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...
in Huánuco, began on February 22, 1812. It involved various leaders, including curaca
Curaca
A curaca was an official of the Inca Empire, who held the role of magistrate, about 4 levels down from the Sapa Inca, the head of the Empire. The curacas were the heads of the ayllus . They served as tax collector, and held religious authority, in that they mediated between the supernatural sphere...
s and township magistrates (alcaldes pedáneos), but was suppressed within a few weeks. More enduring was the rebellion of Cuzco from 1814 to 1815.
The rebellion began in a confrontation between the Constitutional Cabildo and the Audiencia of Cuzco over the administration of the city. Cabildo officials and their allies were arrested by the Audiencia. Criollo
Criollo people
The Criollo class ranked below that of the Iberian Peninsulares, the high-born permanent residence colonists born in Spain. But Criollos were higher status/rank than all other castes—people of mixed descent, Amerindians, and enslaved Africans...
leaders appealed to retired brigadier Mateo Pumacahua
Mateo Pumacahua
Mateo García Pumacahua was a Peruvian revolutionary in the War of Independence.-Biography:Pumacahua was the cacique of Chinchero, brigadier of the militia of the Viceroyalty of Peru, and interim president of the Audiencia of Cuzco...
, who was curaca of Chinchero
Chinchero District
Chinchero District is one of seven districts of the province Urubamba in Peru.-External links:...
, and decades earlier had been instrumental in suppressing the rebellion of Túpac Amaru II. Pumacahua joined the Criollo leaders in forming a junta on August 3 in Cuzco, which demanded the complete implementation of the liberal reforms of the Spanish Constitution of 1812
Spanish Constitution of 1812
The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was promulgated 19 March 1812 by the Cádiz Cortes, the national legislative assembly of Spain, while in refuge from the Peninsular War...
. After some victories in southern Peru and Upper Peru, the rebellion was quashed by mid-1815.
Liberating armies
Battle of Maipú
The Battle of Maipú was a battle fought near Santiago, Chile on April 5, 1818 between South American rebels and Spanish royalists, during the Chilean War of Independence...
. Lord Cochrane
Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald
Admiral Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald, 1st Marquess of Maranhão, GCB, ODM , styled Lord Cochrane between 1778 and 1831, was a senior British naval flag officer and radical politician....
assisted in creating a Chilean Navy
Chilean Navy
-Independence Wars of Chile and Peru :The Chilean Navy dates back to 1817. A year before, following the Battle of Chacabuco, General Bernardo O'Higgins prophetically declared "this victory and another hundred shall be of no significance if we do not gain control of the sea".This led to the...
, which transported the fighting troops from Chile to the Paracas Peninsula
Paracas Peninsula
The Paracas Peninsula is a desert peninsula within the boundaries of the Paracas National Reservation, a marine reserve which extends south along the coast. The only marine reserve in Peru, it is a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site....
in 1820. Cochrane then launched a sea campaign against the Spanish fleet in the Pacific. San Martín proclaimed Peruvian independence after reaching Lima
Lima
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the central part of the country, on a desert coast overlooking the Pacific Ocean. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms a contiguous urban area known as the Lima...
the following year. Royalist strongholds remained throughout the country and in Upper Peru, so it was not until four years later that the Spanish Monarchy was definitively defeated at the Battle of Ayacucho
Battle of Ayacucho
The Battle of Ayacucho was a decisive military encounter during the Peruvian War of Independence. It was the battle that sealed the independence of Peru, as well as the victory that ensured independence for the rest of South America...
by troops under the command of Antonio José de Sucre
Antonio José de Sucre
Antonio José de Sucre y Alcalá , known as the "Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho" , was a Venezuelan independence leader. Sucre was one of Simón Bolívar's closest friends, generals and statesmen.-Ancestry:...
. Upper Peru was once again separated from Peru in 1825 by an Upper Peruvian constituent congress, despite opposition to the plan by Bolívar.
Aftermath
After the war of independence, conflicts of interests that faced different sectors of the Criollo society and the particular ambitions of individual caudilloCaudillo
Caudillo is a Spanish word for "leader" and usually describes a political-military leader at the head of an authoritarian power. The term translates into English as leader or chief, or more pejoratively as warlord, dictator or strongman. Caudillo was the term used to refer to the charismatic...
s, made the organization of the country excessively difficult. Only three civilian
Civilian
A civilian under international humanitarian law is a person who is not a member of his or her country's armed forces or other militia. Civilians are distinct from combatants. They are afforded a degree of legal protection from the effects of war and military occupation...
s: Manuel Pardo
Manuel Pardo
Manuel Pardo y Lavalle was a Peruvian politician and the first civilian President of Peru.Born in Lima, Peru, he was the founder of the most important political party of the era...
, Nicolás de Piérola
Nicolás de Piérola
H.E. Don Jose Nicolás Baltasar Fernández de Piérola y Villena was a prominent Peruvian politician, the Finance Minister and twice President of the Republic of Peru .-Early years:Nicolás de Piérola was born and educated in the southern Peruvian city of Arequipa...
and Francisco García Calderón
Francisco García Calderón
Francisco García Calderón Landa was a lawyer and president of Peru for a short seven-month period in 1881, during the War of the Pacific. His predecessor was Nicolás de Piérola, his successor was Lizardo Montero Flores...
would accede to the presidency in the first seventy-five years of independent life. In 1837, the Peru-Bolivian Confederation
Peru-Bolivian Confederation
The Peru–Bolivian Confederation was a short-lived confederate state that existed in South America between 1836 and 1839. Its first and only head of state, titled Supreme Protector, was the Bolivian president, Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz....
was created but, it was dissolved two years later due to a combined military intervention of Peruvian patriots and the Chilean military.