Gilbert Austin
Encyclopedia
Gilbert Austin was an Irish educator, clergyman, and author. Austin is best known for his 1806 book on chironomia
, Chironomia, or a Treatise on Rhetorical Delivery. Heavily influenced by classical writers, Austin stressed the importance of voice and gesture to a successful oration.
, Ireland
. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin
, Austin received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1774 and his Master of Arts degree in 1780. After graduating, Austin established a private school in Dublin where he taught the sons of Ireland’s elite, including Augustus Frederick FitzGerald, later Third Duke of Leinster
(Robb and Thonssen 1966:xv-xvi). Austin inscribed his best-known work, Chironomia, or a Treatise on Rhetorical Delivery, to another of his former pupils, Francis William Caulfeild, Earl of Charlemont.
An active member of the Royal Irish Academy
, Austin wrote several scientific papers describing his inventions. In 1789, Austin edited and published a collection of poems by Irish writer Thomas Dermody
. Austin also published a number of his sermons, including the collection Sermons on Practical Subjects. Austin began work on his most famous book, Chironomia, in the 1770s but it was not published until 1806.
Austin held several clerical appointments in the Church of Ireland
. In 1798, Austin became a minor canon of St. Patrick’s Cathedral, Dublin
. From 1816 until his death in 1837, Austin was Vicar
of Laraghbryan (or Maynooth
), a living to which he was presented by his former pupil, the Duke of Leinster
. Austin also held the prebendary
of Blackrath from 1821 to 1835 (Robb and Thonssen 1966:xvi).
. Philippa Spoel (1998) writes, "these articles, which describe the construction and application of chemical apparatus invented by Austin, demonstrate his involvement...with the flourishing field of chemistry" (7). The inventions Austin described include a portable barometer
, a mechanism for filling water with carbon dioxide
, and an apparatus for collecting gasses over water and mercury
. In 1813, Austin published "On a New Construction of a Condenser and Air-Pump" in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.
's first collection of poetry, Poems.
In 1794, Austin published A Sermon on a Future State: Combating the Opinion that "Death is Eternal Sleep." American author Edgar Allan Poe
(1844) described Austin’s sermon as "nearly, if not quite the best 'Essay on a Future State' " (584). Austin published Sermons on Practical Subjects in 1795 and A Sermon for the Support of Mercer's Hospital
in 1796.
Austin observed that British orators were skilled in the first four divisions of rhetoric
: inventio
, dispositio
, elocutio
, and memoria
. However, the fifth division, pronuntiatio
or delivery, was all but ignored. Delivery, which is often improperly referred to as elocution
(elocutio
), concerns the use of voice and gesture
in an oration. Rather than study the art of delivery, orators trusted to the inspiration of the moment to guide their voices and gestures. Austin describes this as a reliance on "gestures imperfectly conceived...which will consequently be imperfectly executed" (5).
Chironomia is a treatise on the importance of good delivery. Good delivery, Austin notes, can "conceal in some degree the blemishes of the composition, or the matter delivered, and...add lustre to its beauties" (187). In the first part of the book, Austin traces the study of the art of delivery from the classical world to the eighteenth century. The second part of the book is devoted to a description of the notation system Austin designed to teach students of rhetoric
the management of gesture
and voice. The system of notation is accompanied by a series of illustrations depicting positions of the feet, body, and hands.
Throughout Chironomia, Austin instructs speakers to avoid the appearance of vulgarity or rusticity. Austin first developed the system of notation described in Chironomia at his school for privileged young men. Austin's goal was to prepare his students for a life in the church or politics by training them to become better orators. Although Austin's system was eventually dismissed as too rigidly prescriptive, Chironomia was a highly influential book during the nineteenth century.
and Quintilian
. Cicero
refers to action as the "language of the body" and the art of delivery as "corporeal eloquence" (Austin [1806] 1966:1). Austin attributes to Quintilian
the use of the word chironomia to refer to the art of gesture (2). In Chironomia, Austin quotes extensively from Cicero
’s De oratore and Quintilian
's Institutio oratoria.
Austin also cites Ludovicus Cressolius's 1620 book Vacationes Autumales sive de perfecta Oratoris, Actione, et Pronuntiatione and the work of Caussinus as influences. Despite their use of the term elocution for the art Austin calls delivery, Austin refers to Thomas Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution (1762) and John Walker's Elements of Elocution (1781) in his discussion of voice and countenance.
Austin's work would appear to be a direct descendent of John Bulwer
’s book Chirologia, or, The natural language of the hand which, when it was published in 1644, also included Bulwer's work Chironomia; or, The art of manual rhetoricke. However, Austin does not mention Bulwer anywhere in his Chironomia. Robb and Thonssen (1966) suggest this is because Austin was unfamiliar with Bulwer's book (xi).
In addition to his rules for the management of the voice, Austin also addresses issues of vocal quality including pitch, volume, and variety. Austin was also concerned with the management of facial expression. Austin stresses the importance of using appropriate tones of voice, facial expressions, and gestures to convey sincerity.
as the "action and position of all the parts of the body" (133) and attributes to gesture the power to convey meaning. During the eighteenth century, speakers preferred the natural style of gesture but Austin warns against this style saying that speakers who rely on nature run the risk of displaying "the untutored extravagance and uncouth motions of the vulgar" (138 see Plate 2, Figures 8 and 9 below). By following Austin’s guidelines, speakers could improve their delivery by matching their gestures to their words. Austin advises his students, however, that gesture should be used with restraint and only when appropriate (137).
as the original artist but claims that he could not afford to pay Chinnery to complete the engravings. An anonymous young man was employed to alter and complete the plates (Austin [1806] 1966:viii).
...Austin was the authority on teaching gesture" (xvii). With the publication of Chironomia, Austin's influence extended beyond his own school to classrooms throughout Britain and America. By the end of the nineteenth century, however, Chironomia had fallen from favour. Austin's method was considered too mechanical for modern tastes. G. P. Mohrmann (1968) claims the misperception of Chironomia as rigidly prescriptive is due to a lack of critical analysis of Austin's method (18). Spoel (1998) describes Chironomia as "a unique socially and historically situated representation of bodily discipline" (5). Chironomia remains of interest to scholars not only for its insight into late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth century rhetorical practices but also for its collection of classical writings on delivery.
Chironomia
Chironomia is the art of using gesticulations or hand gestures to good effect in traditional rhetoric or oratory. Effective use of the hands, with or without the use of the voice, is a practice of great antiquity, which was developed and systematized by the Greeks and the Romans...
, Chironomia, or a Treatise on Rhetorical Delivery. Heavily influenced by classical writers, Austin stressed the importance of voice and gesture to a successful oration.
Biographical information
Gilbert Austin was born in 1753 in County LouthCounty Louth
County Louth is a county of Ireland. It is part of the Border Region and is also located in the province of Leinster. It is named after the town of Louth. Louth County Council is the local authority for the county...
, Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin
Trinity College, Dublin
Trinity College, Dublin , formally known as the College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity of Queen Elizabeth near Dublin, was founded in 1592 by letters patent from Queen Elizabeth I as the "mother of a university", Extracts from Letters Patent of Elizabeth I, 1592: "...we...found and...
, Austin received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1774 and his Master of Arts degree in 1780. After graduating, Austin established a private school in Dublin where he taught the sons of Ireland’s elite, including Augustus Frederick FitzGerald, later Third Duke of Leinster
Duke of Leinster
Duke of Leinster is a title in the Peerage of Ireland and the premier dukedom in that peerage. The title refers to Leinster, but unlike the province the title is pronounced "Lin-ster"...
(Robb and Thonssen 1966:xv-xvi). Austin inscribed his best-known work, Chironomia, or a Treatise on Rhetorical Delivery, to another of his former pupils, Francis William Caulfeild, Earl of Charlemont.
An active member of the Royal Irish Academy
Royal Irish Academy
The Royal Irish Academy , based in Dublin, is an all-Ireland, independent, academic body that promotes study and excellence in the sciences, humanities and social sciences. It is one of Ireland's premier learned societies and cultural institutions and currently has around 420 Members, elected in...
, Austin wrote several scientific papers describing his inventions. In 1789, Austin edited and published a collection of poems by Irish writer Thomas Dermody
Thomas Dermody
Thomas Dermody , poet, born in Ennis, showed great capacity for learning, but fell into idle and dissipated habits, and threw away his opportunities. He published two books of poems, which after his death were collected as The Harp of Erin...
. Austin also published a number of his sermons, including the collection Sermons on Practical Subjects. Austin began work on his most famous book, Chironomia, in the 1770s but it was not published until 1806.
Austin held several clerical appointments in the Church of Ireland
Church of Ireland
The Church of Ireland is an autonomous province of the Anglican Communion. The church operates in all parts of Ireland and is the second largest religious body on the island after the Roman Catholic Church...
. In 1798, Austin became a minor canon of St. Patrick’s Cathedral, Dublin
St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin
Saint Patrick's Cathedral , or more formally, the Cathedral of the Blessed Virgin Mary and St Patrick is a cathedral of the Church of Ireland in Dublin, Ireland which was founded in 1191. The Church has designated it as The National Cathedral of Ireland...
. From 1816 until his death in 1837, Austin was Vicar
Vicar
In the broadest sense, a vicar is a representative, deputy or substitute; anyone acting "in the person of" or agent for a superior . In this sense, the title is comparable to lieutenant...
of Laraghbryan (or Maynooth
Maynooth
Maynooth is a town in north County Kildare, Ireland. It is home to a branch of the National University of Ireland, a Papal University and Ireland's main Roman Catholic seminary, St. Patrick's College...
), a living to which he was presented by his former pupil, the Duke of Leinster
Duke of Leinster
Duke of Leinster is a title in the Peerage of Ireland and the premier dukedom in that peerage. The title refers to Leinster, but unlike the province the title is pronounced "Lin-ster"...
. Austin also held the prebendary
Prebendary
A prebendary is a post connected to an Anglican or Catholic cathedral or collegiate church and is a type of canon. Prebendaries have a role in the administration of the cathedral...
of Blackrath from 1821 to 1835 (Robb and Thonssen 1966:xvi).
Scientific articles
Between 1790 and 1803, Austin published three articles in the Transactions of the Royal Irish AcademyRoyal Irish Academy
The Royal Irish Academy , based in Dublin, is an all-Ireland, independent, academic body that promotes study and excellence in the sciences, humanities and social sciences. It is one of Ireland's premier learned societies and cultural institutions and currently has around 420 Members, elected in...
. Philippa Spoel (1998) writes, "these articles, which describe the construction and application of chemical apparatus invented by Austin, demonstrate his involvement...with the flourishing field of chemistry" (7). The inventions Austin described include a portable barometer
Barometer
A barometer is a scientific instrument used in meteorology to measure atmospheric pressure. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather...
, a mechanism for filling water with carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
, and an apparatus for collecting gasses over water and mercury
Mercury (element)
Mercury is a chemical element with the symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is also known as quicksilver or hydrargyrum...
. In 1813, Austin published "On a New Construction of a Condenser and Air-Pump" in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.
Sermons and other writing
In 1789, Austin edited and published Thomas DermodyThomas Dermody
Thomas Dermody , poet, born in Ennis, showed great capacity for learning, but fell into idle and dissipated habits, and threw away his opportunities. He published two books of poems, which after his death were collected as The Harp of Erin...
's first collection of poetry, Poems.
In 1794, Austin published A Sermon on a Future State: Combating the Opinion that "Death is Eternal Sleep." American author Edgar Allan Poe
Edgar Allan Poe
Edgar Allan Poe was an American author, poet, editor and literary critic, considered part of the American Romantic Movement. Best known for his tales of mystery and the macabre, Poe was one of the earliest American practitioners of the short story and is considered the inventor of the detective...
(1844) described Austin’s sermon as "nearly, if not quite the best 'Essay on a Future State' " (584). Austin published Sermons on Practical Subjects in 1795 and A Sermon for the Support of Mercer's Hospital
Mercer's Hospital
Mercer's Hospital in Dublin, Ireland is a former hospital, converted in the 1990s into a medical centre, part of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland.-History:...
in 1796.
Chironomia, or a Treatise on Rhetorical Delivery
In the preface to Chironomia, Austin writes...it is a fact, that we do not possess from the ancients, nor yet from the labours of our own countrymen, any sufficiently detailed and precise precepts for the fifth division of the art of rhetoricRhetoricRhetoric is the art of discourse, an art that aims to improve the facility of speakers or writers who attempt to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of formal study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played a central role in the Western...
, namely rhetorical delivery, called by the ancients actioActioActio is a term in rhetoric that means the delivery that is given to a speech. Hand gestures, voice variation, speaker to audience eye contact, and an engaging manner are all needed for an effective actio.- See also :* Actio popularis, in law...
and pronuntiatioPronuntiatioPronuntiatio was the discipline of delivering speeches in Western classical rhetoric. It is the one of five canons of classical rhetoric that concern the crafting and delivery of speeches. In literature the equivalent of ancient pronuntiatio is the recitation of epics Pronuntiatio was the...
. (ix)
Austin observed that British orators were skilled in the first four divisions of rhetoric
Rhetoric
Rhetoric is the art of discourse, an art that aims to improve the facility of speakers or writers who attempt to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of formal study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played a central role in the Western...
: inventio
Inventio
Inventio is the system or method used for the discovery of arguments in Western rhetoric and comes from the Latin word, meaning "invention" or "discovery"...
, dispositio
Dispositio
See also: Disposition Dispositio is the system used for the organization of arguments in Western classical rhetoric. The word is Latin, and can be translated as "organization" or "arrangement."...
, elocutio
Elocutio
Elocutio is the term for the mastery of stylistic elements in Western classical rhetoric and comes from the Latin loqui, "to speak". Although today we associate the word elocution more with eloquent speaking, for the classical rhetorician it connoted "style".It is the third of the five canons of...
, and memoria
Memoria
Memoria was the term for aspects involving memory in Western classical rhetoric. The word is Latin, and can be translated as "memory."It was one of five canons in classical rhetoric concerned with the crafting and delivery of speeches and prose.The art of rhetoric grew out of oratory, which was...
. However, the fifth division, pronuntiatio
Pronuntiatio
Pronuntiatio was the discipline of delivering speeches in Western classical rhetoric. It is the one of five canons of classical rhetoric that concern the crafting and delivery of speeches. In literature the equivalent of ancient pronuntiatio is the recitation of epics Pronuntiatio was the...
or delivery, was all but ignored. Delivery, which is often improperly referred to as elocution
Elocution
Elocution is the study of formal speaking in pronunciation, grammar, style, and tone.-History:In Western classical rhetoric, elocution was one of the five core disciplines of pronunciation, which was the art of delivering speeches. Orators were trained not only on proper diction, but on the proper...
(elocutio
Elocutio
Elocutio is the term for the mastery of stylistic elements in Western classical rhetoric and comes from the Latin loqui, "to speak". Although today we associate the word elocution more with eloquent speaking, for the classical rhetorician it connoted "style".It is the third of the five canons of...
), concerns the use of voice and gesture
Gesture
A gesture is a form of non-verbal communication in which visible bodily actions communicate particular messages, either in place of speech or together and in parallel with spoken words. Gestures include movement of the hands, face, or other parts of the body...
in an oration. Rather than study the art of delivery, orators trusted to the inspiration of the moment to guide their voices and gestures. Austin describes this as a reliance on "gestures imperfectly conceived...which will consequently be imperfectly executed" (5).
Chironomia is a treatise on the importance of good delivery. Good delivery, Austin notes, can "conceal in some degree the blemishes of the composition, or the matter delivered, and...add lustre to its beauties" (187). In the first part of the book, Austin traces the study of the art of delivery from the classical world to the eighteenth century. The second part of the book is devoted to a description of the notation system Austin designed to teach students of rhetoric
Rhetoric
Rhetoric is the art of discourse, an art that aims to improve the facility of speakers or writers who attempt to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of formal study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played a central role in the Western...
the management of gesture
Gesture
A gesture is a form of non-verbal communication in which visible bodily actions communicate particular messages, either in place of speech or together and in parallel with spoken words. Gestures include movement of the hands, face, or other parts of the body...
and voice. The system of notation is accompanied by a series of illustrations depicting positions of the feet, body, and hands.
Throughout Chironomia, Austin instructs speakers to avoid the appearance of vulgarity or rusticity. Austin first developed the system of notation described in Chironomia at his school for privileged young men. Austin's goal was to prepare his students for a life in the church or politics by training them to become better orators. Although Austin's system was eventually dismissed as too rigidly prescriptive, Chironomia was a highly influential book during the nineteenth century.
Influences
Discussing the need for a treatise on delivery, Austin writes "during my examination of modern writers, it has appeared to me, that, with little exception, they have neglected to pay due attention to the precepts and authority of the great and ancient masters" (v). Austin remedies this oversight by compiling a collection of classical sources on the art of delivery. Austin was heavily influenced by CiceroCicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero , was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.He introduced the Romans to the chief...
and Quintilian
Quintilian
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus was a Roman rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing...
. Cicero
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero , was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.He introduced the Romans to the chief...
refers to action as the "language of the body" and the art of delivery as "corporeal eloquence" (Austin [1806] 1966:1). Austin attributes to Quintilian
Quintilian
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus was a Roman rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing...
the use of the word chironomia to refer to the art of gesture (2). In Chironomia, Austin quotes extensively from Cicero
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero , was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.He introduced the Romans to the chief...
’s De oratore and Quintilian
Quintilian
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus was a Roman rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing...
's Institutio oratoria.
Austin also cites Ludovicus Cressolius's 1620 book Vacationes Autumales sive de perfecta Oratoris, Actione, et Pronuntiatione and the work of Caussinus as influences. Despite their use of the term elocution for the art Austin calls delivery, Austin refers to Thomas Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution (1762) and John Walker's Elements of Elocution (1781) in his discussion of voice and countenance.
Austin's work would appear to be a direct descendent of John Bulwer
John Bulwer
John Bulwer was an English physician and early Baconian natural philosopher who wrote five works exploring the Body and human communication, particularly by gesture....
’s book Chirologia, or, The natural language of the hand which, when it was published in 1644, also included Bulwer's work Chironomia; or, The art of manual rhetoricke. However, Austin does not mention Bulwer anywhere in his Chironomia. Robb and Thonssen (1966) suggest this is because Austin was unfamiliar with Bulwer's book (xi).
Voice and countenance
Austin was concerned with both the quality and management of the voice; he considered the former a gift of nature and the latter a matter of art (29). Austin developed rules for the management of articulation, pronunciation, and emphasis. On articulation, Austin writes[words] are to be delivered out from the lips, as beautiful coins newly issued from the mint, deeply and accurately impressed, perfectly finished, neatly struck by the proper organs, distinct, sharp, in due succession, and of due weight. (38)Austin agreed with Sheridan's advice that good articulation consisted of pronouncing each syllable distinctly and with proper emphasis (37). Austin's rules for pronunciation address the issue of the provincial accent, something Austin labels "a stain of rusticity" (47). Austin encouraged his students to rid themselves of their provincial accent in favour of a courtly accent.
In addition to his rules for the management of the voice, Austin also addresses issues of vocal quality including pitch, volume, and variety. Austin was also concerned with the management of facial expression. Austin stresses the importance of using appropriate tones of voice, facial expressions, and gestures to convey sincerity.
Gesture
Austin describes gestureGesture
A gesture is a form of non-verbal communication in which visible bodily actions communicate particular messages, either in place of speech or together and in parallel with spoken words. Gestures include movement of the hands, face, or other parts of the body...
as the "action and position of all the parts of the body" (133) and attributes to gesture the power to convey meaning. During the eighteenth century, speakers preferred the natural style of gesture but Austin warns against this style saying that speakers who rely on nature run the risk of displaying "the untutored extravagance and uncouth motions of the vulgar" (138 see Plate 2, Figures 8 and 9 below). By following Austin’s guidelines, speakers could improve their delivery by matching their gestures to their words. Austin advises his students, however, that gesture should be used with restraint and only when appropriate (137).
System of notation
Austin's system of notation begins with the placement of the body in an imaginary sphere (see Plate 2, Fig. 18 below). The speaker then moves his or her body, feet, or hands toward one of the points on the sphere. Each movement is assigned a notation that specifies the direction and manner in which the speaker should move. The speaker should include these notations in the text of his or her speech so that he or she knows when and how to move. Notation regarding the hands is written above the sentence; notation regarding the feet is written below. For instance, the notation Bcl. e f sh. above a word indicates that the speaker should clasp both hands and extend them forward at shoulder height in a shaking motion (see Plate 8, Fig. 75 below). The notation L 1 x under a word indicates that the speaker should advance the left foot and bend the right knee. Austin also provides a notation system for the voice. Notation marks are placed at the beginning of a passage and then throughout the text whenever the speaker is to change the tone or rapidity of his or her vocal delivery.Illustrations
The text of Chironomia is accompanied by 12 engraved plates depicting various positions of the feet, arms, and body. Austin credits George ChinneryGeorge Chinnery
George Chinnery was an English painter who spent most of his life in Asia, especially India and southern China.- Early life :Chinnery was born in London, where he studied at the Royal Academy Schools...
as the original artist but claims that he could not afford to pay Chinnery to complete the engravings. An anonymous young man was employed to alter and complete the plates (Austin [1806] 1966:viii).
Influence and criticism
Robb and Thonssen (1966) write, "until the teaching of [François] DelsarteFrançois Delsarte
François Alexandre Nicolas Chéri Delsarte was a French musician and teacher.Delsarte was born in Solesmes, Nord. He was a pupil of the Paris Conservatory, was for a time tenor singer in the Opéra Comique, and composed a few songs. However, he is chiefly known as a teacher in singing and...
...Austin was the authority on teaching gesture" (xvii). With the publication of Chironomia, Austin's influence extended beyond his own school to classrooms throughout Britain and America. By the end of the nineteenth century, however, Chironomia had fallen from favour. Austin's method was considered too mechanical for modern tastes. G. P. Mohrmann (1968) claims the misperception of Chironomia as rigidly prescriptive is due to a lack of critical analysis of Austin's method (18). Spoel (1998) describes Chironomia as "a unique socially and historically situated representation of bodily discipline" (5). Chironomia remains of interest to scholars not only for its insight into late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth century rhetorical practices but also for its collection of classical writings on delivery.
Further reading
- Austin, Gilbert. "Description of an Apparatus for Impregnating Water and Other Substances Strongly with Carbonic Acid Gas." Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy 1799. 131-34.
- ---. "Description of an Apparatus for Transferring Gasses Over Water or Mercury." Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy 1803. 3-9.
- ---. "Description of a Portable Barometer." Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy 1790. 99-105.
- ---. "On a New Construction of a Condenser and Air-Pump." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 1813. 138-145.
- Dermody, Thomas. Poems. Dublin: 1789. New York: Garland, 1978.
- Howell, Wilbur Samuel. Eighteenth-Century British Logic and Rhetoric. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1971.
Resources
- Austin, Gilbert. Chironomia, or a Treatise on Rhetorical Delivery. London: 1806. Ed. Mary Margaret Robb and Lester Thonssen. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois UP, 1966.
- Mohrmann, G. P., "The Real Chironomia." Southern Speech Journal 34 (Fall 1968): 17-27.
- Poe, Edgar Allan. "Marginalia." Democratic Review December 1844. 580-594.
- Robb, Mary Margaret, and Lester Thonssen. "Editor’s Introduction." Austin, Chironomia ix-xxi.
- Spoel, Philippa M. "The Science of Bodily Rhetoric in Gilbert Austin’s Chironomia." Rhetoric Society Quarterly 28 (Fall 1998): 5-27.