George Zweig
Encyclopedia
George Zweig was originally trained as a particle physicist under Richard Feynman
and later turned his attention to neurobiology. He spent a number of years as a Research Scientist at Los Alamos National Laboratory
and MIT, but as of 2004, has gone on to work in the financial services industry.
, Zweig proposed the existence of quark
s while a graduate student in Physics
at the California Institute of Technology
in 1964 (independently of Murray Gell-Mann
). Zweig dubbed them "aces" after the four playing cards, because he speculated there were four of them. The introduction of quarks provided a cornerstone for particle physics.
Like Gell-Mann, he realized that several important properties of particles such as baryon
s (e.g., proton
s and neutron
s) could be explained by treating them as triplets of other constituent particles (which he called aces and Gell-Mann called quarks), with fractional baryon number and electric charge
. Unlike Gell-Mann, Zweig was partly led to his picture of the quark model by the peculiarly attenuated decays of the φ meson to ρ π, a feature codified by what is now known as the OZI Rule
, the "Z" in which stands for "Zweig". In subsequent technical terminology, ultimately Gell-Mann's quarks were to amount to "current quarks", while Zweig's to "constituent quarks".
As pointed out by astrophysicist John Gribbin
, Gell-Mann deservedly received the Nobel Prize
for physics in 1969, for his overall contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions; at that time, quark theory had not become fully accepted, and was not specifically mentioned. In later years, when quark theory became established as the standard model of particle physics
, the Nobel committee presumably felt they couldn't recognize Zweig as the scientist who first spelled out the theory's implications in detail and suggested that they might be real, without including Gell-Mann again.
Nevertheless, in 1977 Feynman
nominated both Gell-Mann and Zweig for the Nobel prize, presumed to be his only
nomination for such.
Whatever the reason, despite Zweig's contributions to a theory central to modern physics, he has not yet been awarded a Nobel prize.
Zweig later turned to neurobiology, and studied the transduction
of sound
into nerve
impulses in the cochlea
of the human
ear
. In 1975, while studying the ear, he discovered the continuous wavelet transform
. Zweig now works for Renaissance Technologies
on Long Island, NY.
Richard Feynman
Richard Phillips Feynman was an American physicist known for his work in the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics, the theory of quantum electrodynamics and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium, as well as in particle physics...
and later turned his attention to neurobiology. He spent a number of years as a Research Scientist at Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos National Laboratory is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory, managed and operated by Los Alamos National Security , located in Los Alamos, New Mexico...
and MIT, but as of 2004, has gone on to work in the financial services industry.
Career
A 1959 graduate of the University of MichiganUniversity of Michigan
The University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...
, Zweig proposed the existence of quark
Quark
A quark is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei. Due to a phenomenon known as color confinement, quarks are never directly...
s while a graduate student in Physics
Physics
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...
at the California Institute of Technology
California Institute of Technology
The California Institute of Technology is a private research university located in Pasadena, California, United States. Caltech has six academic divisions with strong emphases on science and engineering...
in 1964 (independently of Murray Gell-Mann
Murray Gell-Mann
Murray Gell-Mann is an American physicist and linguist who received the 1969 Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the theory of elementary particles...
). Zweig dubbed them "aces" after the four playing cards, because he speculated there were four of them. The introduction of quarks provided a cornerstone for particle physics.
Like Gell-Mann, he realized that several important properties of particles such as baryon
Baryon
A baryon is a composite particle made up of three quarks . Baryons and mesons belong to the hadron family, which are the quark-based particles...
s (e.g., proton
Proton
The proton is a subatomic particle with the symbol or and a positive electric charge of 1 elementary charge. One or more protons are present in the nucleus of each atom, along with neutrons. The number of protons in each atom is its atomic number....
s and neutron
Neutron
The neutron is a subatomic hadron particle which has the symbol or , no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. With the exception of hydrogen, nuclei of atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are therefore collectively referred to as nucleons. The number of...
s) could be explained by treating them as triplets of other constituent particles (which he called aces and Gell-Mann called quarks), with fractional baryon number and electric charge
Electric charge
Electric charge is a physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when near other electrically charged matter. Electric charge comes in two types, called positive and negative. Two positively charged substances, or objects, experience a mutual repulsive force, as do two...
. Unlike Gell-Mann, Zweig was partly led to his picture of the quark model by the peculiarly attenuated decays of the φ meson to ρ π, a feature codified by what is now known as the OZI Rule
OZI Rule
The OZI rule is part of QCD which explains why certain decay modes appear less frequently than otherwise might be expected. It was independently proposed by Susumu Okubo, George Zweig and Jugoro Iizuka in the 1960s...
, the "Z" in which stands for "Zweig". In subsequent technical terminology, ultimately Gell-Mann's quarks were to amount to "current quarks", while Zweig's to "constituent quarks".
As pointed out by astrophysicist John Gribbin
John Gribbin
John R. Gribbin is a British science writer and a visiting Fellow in astronomy at the University of Sussex.- Biography :John Gribbin graduated with his bachelor's degree in physics from the University of Sussex in 1966. Gribbin then earned his master of science degree in astronomy in 1967, also...
, Gell-Mann deservedly received the Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize
The Nobel Prizes are annual international awards bestowed by Scandinavian committees in recognition of cultural and scientific advances. The will of the Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, established the prizes in 1895...
for physics in 1969, for his overall contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions; at that time, quark theory had not become fully accepted, and was not specifically mentioned. In later years, when quark theory became established as the standard model of particle physics
Particle physics
Particle physics is a branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of particles that are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter or radiation. In current understanding, particles are excitations of quantum fields and interact following their dynamics...
, the Nobel committee presumably felt they couldn't recognize Zweig as the scientist who first spelled out the theory's implications in detail and suggested that they might be real, without including Gell-Mann again.
Nevertheless, in 1977 Feynman
Richard Feynman
Richard Phillips Feynman was an American physicist known for his work in the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics, the theory of quantum electrodynamics and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium, as well as in particle physics...
nominated both Gell-Mann and Zweig for the Nobel prize, presumed to be his only
nomination for such.
Whatever the reason, despite Zweig's contributions to a theory central to modern physics, he has not yet been awarded a Nobel prize.
Zweig later turned to neurobiology, and studied the transduction
Transduction (physiology)
In physiology, transduction is the conversion of a stimulus from one form to another.Transduction in the nervous system typically refers to stimulus alerting events wherein a mechanical/physical/etc stimulus is converted into an action potential which is transmitted along axons towards the central...
of sound
Sound
Sound is a mechanical wave that is an oscillation of pressure transmitted through a solid, liquid, or gas, composed of frequencies within the range of hearing and of a level sufficiently strong to be heard, or the sensation stimulated in organs of hearing by such vibrations.-Propagation of...
into nerve
Nerve
A peripheral nerve, or simply nerve, is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of peripheral axons . A nerve provides a common pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses that are transmitted along each of the axons. Nerves are found only in the peripheral nervous system...
impulses in the cochlea
Cochlea
The cochlea is the auditory portion of the inner ear. It is a spiral-shaped cavity in the bony labyrinth, making 2.5 turns around its axis, the modiolus....
of the human
Human
Humans are the only living species in the Homo genus...
ear
Ear
The ear is the organ that detects sound. It not only receives sound, but also aids in balance and body position. The ear is part of the auditory system....
. In 1975, while studying the ear, he discovered the continuous wavelet transform
Continuous wavelet transform
A continuous wavelet transform is used to divide a continuous-time function into wavelets. Unlike Fourier transform, the continuous wavelet transform possesses the ability to construct a time-frequency representation of a signal that offers very good time and frequency localization...
. Zweig now works for Renaissance Technologies
Renaissance Technologies
Renaissance Technologies is a hedge fund management company of about 275 employees and more than $ billion in assets under management in three funds...
on Long Island, NY.
Awards and honours
- MacArthur Prize Fellowship (1981)
- National Academy of SciencesUnited States National Academy of SciencesThe National Academy of Sciences is a corporation in the United States whose members serve pro bono as "advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine." As a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and...
(1996)