Genomics
Encyclopedia
Genomics is a discipline in genetics
concerning the study of the genomes of organisms. The field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence
of organisms and fine-scale genetic mapping efforts. The field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis
, epistasis
, pleiotropy
and other interactions between loci and alleles
within the genome. In contrast, the investigation of the roles and functions of single genes is a primary focus of molecular biology
or genetics
and is a common topic of modern medical and biological research. Research of single genes does not fall into the definition of genomics unless the aim of this genetic, pathway, and functional information analysis is to elucidate its effect on, place in, and response to the entire genome's networks.
For the United States Environmental Protection Agency
, "the term "genomics" encompasses a broader scope of scientific inquiry associated technologies than when genomics was initially considered. A genome is the sum total of all an individual organism's genes. Thus, genomics is the study of all the genes of a cell, or tissue, at the DNA (genotype), mRNA (transcriptome), or protein (proteome) levels."
and a mitochondrion
, and were done by Fred Sanger. His group established techniques of sequencing, genome mapping, data storage, and bioinformatic analyses in the 1970-1980s. A major branch of genomics is still concerned with sequencing
the genomes of various organisms, but the knowledge of full genomes has created the possibility for the field of functional genomics
, mainly concerned with patterns of gene expression
during various conditions. The most important tools here are microarray
s and bioinformatics
. Study of the full set of proteins in a cell type or tissue, and the changes during various conditions, is called proteomics
. A related concept is materiomics
, which is defined as the study of the material properties of biological materials (e.g. hierarchical protein structures and materials, mineralized biological tissues, etc.) and their effect on the macroscopic function and failure in their biological context, linking processes, structure and properties at multiple scales through a materials science approach. The actual term 'genomics' is thought to have been coined by Dr. Tom Roderick, a geneticist at the Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, ME) over beer at a meeting held in Maryland on the mapping of the human genome in 1986.
The Genomic Science Program (formerly Genomes to Life) uses microbial and plants.
In 1972, Walter Fiers
and his team at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of the University of Ghent (Ghent
, Belgium
) were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2
coat protein. In 1976, the team determined the complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA. The first DNA-based genome to be sequenced in its entirety was that of bacteriophage
Φ-X174;
(5,368 bp
), sequenced by Frederick Sanger
in 1977.
The first free-living organism to be sequenced was that of Haemophilus influenzae
(1.8 Mb
) in 1995, and since then genomes are being sequenced at a rapid pace. As of October 2011, the complete sequences are available for: 2719 virus
es, 1115 archaea
and bacteria
, and 36 eukaryotes
, of which about half are fungi.
Most of the bacteria whose genomes have been completely sequenced are problematic disease-causing agents, such as Haemophilus influenzae
. Of the other sequenced species, most were chosen because they were well-studied model organisms or promised to become good models. Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae
) has long been an important model organism
for the eukaryotic cell
, while the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster
has been a very important tool (notably in early pre-molecular genetics
). The worm Caenorhabditis elegans
is an often used simple model for multicellular organism
s. The zebrafish Brachydanio rerio is used for many developmental studies on the molecular level and the flower Arabidopsis thaliana
is a model organism for flowering plants. The Japanese pufferfish (Takifugu rubripes
) and the spotted green pufferfish (Tetraodon nigroviridis
) are interesting because of their small and compact genomes, containing very little non-coding DNA compared to most species.
The mammals dog (Canis familiaris),
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus), mouse (Mus musculus), and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) are all important model animals in medical research.
in early 2001, creating much fanfare. By 2007 the human sequence was declared "finished" (less than one
error in 20,000 bases and all chromosomes assembled). Display of the results of the project
required significant bioinformatics
resources. The sequence of the human reference assembly can be explored using the UCSC Genome Browser
or Ensembl
.
s have played and continue to play a key role in bacterial genetics
and molecular biology
. Historically, they were used to define gene
structure and gene regulation. Also the first genome
to be sequenced was a bacteriophage
. However, bacteriophage research did not lead the genomics revolution, which is clearly dominated by bacterial genomics. Only very recently has the study of bacteriophage genomes become prominent, thereby enabling researchers to understand the mechanisms underlying phage evolution. Bacteriophage genome sequences can be obtained through direct sequencing of isolated bacteriophages, but can also be derived as part of microbial genomes. Analysis of bacterial genomes has shown that a substantial amount of microbial DNA consists of prophage
sequences and prophage-like elements. A detailed database mining of these sequences offers insights into the role of prophages in shaping the bacterial genome.
strains, seven marine Synechococcus
strains, Trichodesmium erythraeum IMS101 and Crocosphaera watsonii WH8501. Several studies have demonstrated how these sequences could be used very successfully to infer important ecological and physiological characteristics of marine cyanobacteria. However, there are many more genome projects currently in progress, amongst those there are further Prochlorococcus
and marine Synechococcus
isolates, Acaryochloris and Prochloron
, the N2-fixing filamentous cyanobacteria Nodularia spumigena, Lyngbya aestuarii and Lyngbya majuscula
, as well as bacteriophage
s infecting marine cyanobaceria. Thus, the growing body of genome information can also be tapped in a more general way to address global problems by applying a comparative approach. Some new and exciting examples of progress in this field are the identification of genes for regulatory RNAs, insights into the evolutionary origin of photosynthesis
, or estimation of the contribution of horizontal gene transfer to the genomes that have been analyzed.
Genetics
Genetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
concerning the study of the genomes of organisms. The field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence
DNA sequence
The sequence or primary structure of a nucleic acid is the composition of atoms that make up the nucleic acid and the chemical bonds that bond those atoms. Because nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, are unbranched polymers, this specification is equivalent to specifying the sequence of...
of organisms and fine-scale genetic mapping efforts. The field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis
Heterosis
Heterosis, or hybrid vigor, or outbreeding enhancement, is the improved or increased function of any biological quality in a hybrid offspring. The adjective derived from heterosis is heterotic....
, epistasis
Epistasis
In genetics, epistasis is the phenomenon where the effects of one gene are modified by one or several other genes, which are sometimes called modifier genes. The gene whose phenotype is expressed is called epistatic, while the phenotype altered or suppressed is called hypostatic...
, pleiotropy
Pleiotropy
Pleiotropy occurs when one gene influences multiple phenotypic traits. Consequently, a mutation in a pleiotropic gene may have an effect on some or all traits simultaneously...
and other interactions between loci and alleles
Allele
An allele is one of two or more forms of a gene or a genetic locus . "Allel" is an abbreviation of allelomorph. Sometimes, different alleles can result in different observable phenotypic traits, such as different pigmentation...
within the genome. In contrast, the investigation of the roles and functions of single genes is a primary focus of molecular biology
Molecular biology
Molecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of biological activity. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry...
or genetics
Genetics
Genetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
and is a common topic of modern medical and biological research. Research of single genes does not fall into the definition of genomics unless the aim of this genetic, pathway, and functional information analysis is to elucidate its effect on, place in, and response to the entire genome's networks.
For the United States Environmental Protection Agency
United States Environmental Protection Agency
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged with protecting human health and the environment, by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress...
, "the term "genomics" encompasses a broader scope of scientific inquiry associated technologies than when genomics was initially considered. A genome is the sum total of all an individual organism's genes. Thus, genomics is the study of all the genes of a cell, or tissue, at the DNA (genotype), mRNA (transcriptome), or protein (proteome) levels."
History
The first genomes to be sequenced were those of a virusVirus
A virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea...
and a mitochondrion
Mitochondrion
In cell biology, a mitochondrion is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. These organelles range from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometers in diameter...
, and were done by Fred Sanger. His group established techniques of sequencing, genome mapping, data storage, and bioinformatic analyses in the 1970-1980s. A major branch of genomics is still concerned with sequencing
Sequencing
In genetics and biochemistry, sequencing means to determine the primary structure of an unbranched biopolymer...
the genomes of various organisms, but the knowledge of full genomes has created the possibility for the field of functional genomics
Functional genomics
Functional genomics is a field of molecular biology that attempts to make use of the vast wealth of data produced by genomic projects to describe gene functions and interactions...
, mainly concerned with patterns of gene expression
Gene expression
Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as ribosomal RNA , transfer RNA or small nuclear RNA genes, the product is a functional RNA...
during various conditions. The most important tools here are microarray
Microarray
A microarray is a multiplex lab-on-a-chip. It is a 2D array on a solid substrate that assays large amounts of biological material using high-throughput screening methods.Types of microarrays include:...
s and bioinformatics
Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics is the application of computer science and information technology to the field of biology and medicine. Bioinformatics deals with algorithms, databases and information systems, web technologies, artificial intelligence and soft computing, information and computation theory, software...
. Study of the full set of proteins in a cell type or tissue, and the changes during various conditions, is called proteomics
Proteomics
Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological metabolic pathways of cells. The term "proteomics" was first coined in 1997 to make an analogy with...
. A related concept is materiomics
Materiomics
Materiomics is defined as the study of the material properties of natural and synthetic materials by examining fundamental links between processes, structures and properties at multiple scales, from nano to macro, by using systematic experimental, theoretical or computational methods.The term has...
, which is defined as the study of the material properties of biological materials (e.g. hierarchical protein structures and materials, mineralized biological tissues, etc.) and their effect on the macroscopic function and failure in their biological context, linking processes, structure and properties at multiple scales through a materials science approach. The actual term 'genomics' is thought to have been coined by Dr. Tom Roderick, a geneticist at the Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, ME) over beer at a meeting held in Maryland on the mapping of the human genome in 1986.
The Genomic Science Program (formerly Genomes to Life) uses microbial and plants.
In 1972, Walter Fiers
Walter Fiers
Walter Fiers is a Belgian molecular biologist.He obtained a degree of Engineer for Chemistry and Agricultural Industries at the University of Ghent in 1954, and started his research career as an enzymologist in the laboratory of Laurent Vandendriessche in Ghent. In 1956-57, he worked with Heinz...
and his team at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of the University of Ghent (Ghent
Ghent
Ghent is a city and a municipality located in the Flemish region of Belgium. It is the capital and biggest city of the East Flanders province. The city started as a settlement at the confluence of the Rivers Scheldt and Lys and in the Middle Ages became one of the largest and richest cities of...
, Belgium
Belgium
Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
) were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2
Bacteriophage MS2
The bacteriophage MS2 is an icosahedral, positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that infects the bacterium Escherichia coli.-History:...
coat protein. In 1976, the team determined the complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA. The first DNA-based genome to be sequenced in its entirety was that of bacteriophage
Bacteriophage
A bacteriophage is any one of a number of viruses that infect bacteria. They do this by injecting genetic material, which they carry enclosed in an outer protein capsid...
Φ-X174;
Phi-X174 phage
The phi X 174 bacteriophage was the first DNA-based genome to be sequenced. This work was completed by Fred Sanger and his team in 1977. In 1962, Walter Fiers had already demonstrated the physical, covalently closed circularity of phi X 174 DNA.In 2003, it was reported that the whole genome of...
(5,368 bp
Base pair
In molecular biology and genetics, the linking between two nitrogenous bases on opposite complementary DNA or certain types of RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds is called a base pair...
), sequenced by Frederick Sanger
Frederick Sanger
Frederick Sanger, OM, CH, CBE, FRS is an English biochemist and a two-time Nobel laureate in chemistry, the only person to have been so. In 1958 he was awarded a Nobel prize in chemistry "for his work on the structure of proteins, especially that of insulin"...
in 1977.
The first free-living organism to be sequenced was that of Haemophilus influenzae
Haemophilus influenzae
Haemophilus influenzae, formerly called Pfeiffer's bacillus or Bacillus influenzae, Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium first described in 1892 by Richard Pfeiffer during an influenza pandemic. A member of the Pasteurellaceae family, it is generally aerobic, but can grow as a facultative anaerobe. H...
(1.8 Mb
Base pair
In molecular biology and genetics, the linking between two nitrogenous bases on opposite complementary DNA or certain types of RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds is called a base pair...
) in 1995, and since then genomes are being sequenced at a rapid pace. As of October 2011, the complete sequences are available for: 2719 virus
Virus
A virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea...
es, 1115 archaea
Archaea
The Archaea are a group of single-celled microorganisms. A single individual or species from this domain is called an archaeon...
and bacteria
Bacteria
Bacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
, and 36 eukaryotes
Eukaryote
A eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear...
, of which about half are fungi.
Most of the bacteria whose genomes have been completely sequenced are problematic disease-causing agents, such as Haemophilus influenzae
Haemophilus influenzae
Haemophilus influenzae, formerly called Pfeiffer's bacillus or Bacillus influenzae, Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium first described in 1892 by Richard Pfeiffer during an influenza pandemic. A member of the Pasteurellaceae family, it is generally aerobic, but can grow as a facultative anaerobe. H...
. Of the other sequenced species, most were chosen because they were well-studied model organisms or promised to become good models. Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of yeast. It is perhaps the most useful yeast, having been instrumental to baking and brewing since ancient times. It is believed that it was originally isolated from the skin of grapes...
) has long been an important model organism
Model organism
A model organism is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms. Model organisms are in vivo models and are widely used to...
for the eukaryotic cell
Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryotic Cell is an academic journal published by the American Society for Microbiology. The title is commonly abbreviated EC and the ISSN is 1535-9778 for the print version, and 1535-9786 for the electronic version....
, while the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster
Drosophila melanogaster
Drosophila melanogaster is a species of Diptera, or the order of flies, in the family Drosophilidae. The species is known generally as the common fruit fly or vinegar fly. Starting from Charles W...
has been a very important tool (notably in early pre-molecular genetics
Genetics
Genetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
). The worm Caenorhabditis elegans
Caenorhabditis elegans
Caenorhabditis elegans is a free-living, transparent nematode , about 1 mm in length, which lives in temperate soil environments. Research into the molecular and developmental biology of C. elegans was begun in 1974 by Sydney Brenner and it has since been used extensively as a model...
is an often used simple model for multicellular organism
Multicellular organism
Multicellular organisms are organisms that consist of more than one cell, in contrast to single-celled organisms. Most life that can be seen with the the naked eye is multicellular, as are all animals and land plants.-Evolutionary history:Multicellularity has evolved independently dozens of times...
s. The zebrafish Brachydanio rerio is used for many developmental studies on the molecular level and the flower Arabidopsis thaliana
Arabidopsis thaliana
Arabidopsis thaliana is a small flowering plant native to Europe, Asia, and northwestern Africa. A spring annual with a relatively short life cycle, arabidopsis is popular as a model organism in plant biology and genetics...
is a model organism for flowering plants. The Japanese pufferfish (Takifugu rubripes
Takifugu rubripes
Takifugu rubripes is a pufferfish in the genus Takifugu. A feature of this species is that it has a very small genome, which is used as a ‘reference’ for identifying genes and other elements in human and other vertebrate genomes...
) and the spotted green pufferfish (Tetraodon nigroviridis
Tetraodon nigroviridis
Tetraodon nigroviridis is one of the pufferfish known as the green spotted puffer. It is found across South and Southeast Asia in coastal freshwater and brackish water habitats. Tetraodon nigroviridis reaches a maximum length of about 15 cm...
) are interesting because of their small and compact genomes, containing very little non-coding DNA compared to most species.
The mammals dog (Canis familiaris),
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus), mouse (Mus musculus), and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) are all important model animals in medical research.
Human genomics
A rough draft of the human genome was completed by the Human Genome ProjectHuman Genome Project
The Human Genome Project is an international scientific research project with a primary goal of determining the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up DNA, and of identifying and mapping the approximately 20,000–25,000 genes of the human genome from both a physical and functional...
in early 2001, creating much fanfare. By 2007 the human sequence was declared "finished" (less than one
error in 20,000 bases and all chromosomes assembled). Display of the results of the project
required significant bioinformatics
Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics is the application of computer science and information technology to the field of biology and medicine. Bioinformatics deals with algorithms, databases and information systems, web technologies, artificial intelligence and soft computing, information and computation theory, software...
resources. The sequence of the human reference assembly can be explored using the UCSC Genome Browser
UCSC Genome Browser
The University of California, Santa Cruz is an up-to-date source for genome sequence data from a variety of vertebrate and invertebrate species and major model organisms, integrated with a large collection of aligned annotations...
or Ensembl
Ensembl
Ensembl is a joint scientific project between the European Bioinformatics Institute and the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, which was launched in 1999 in response to the imminent completion of the Human Genome Project...
.
Bacteriophage genomics
BacteriophageBacteriophage
A bacteriophage is any one of a number of viruses that infect bacteria. They do this by injecting genetic material, which they carry enclosed in an outer protein capsid...
s have played and continue to play a key role in bacterial genetics
Genetics
Genetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
and molecular biology
Molecular biology
Molecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of biological activity. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry...
. Historically, they were used to define gene
Gene
A gene is a molecular unit of heredity of a living organism. It is a name given to some stretches of DNA and RNA that code for a type of protein or for an RNA chain that has a function in the organism. Living beings depend on genes, as they specify all proteins and functional RNA chains...
structure and gene regulation. Also the first genome
Genome
In modern molecular biology and genetics, the genome is the entirety of an organism's hereditary information. It is encoded either in DNA or, for many types of virus, in RNA. The genome includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences of the DNA/RNA....
to be sequenced was a bacteriophage
Bacteriophage
A bacteriophage is any one of a number of viruses that infect bacteria. They do this by injecting genetic material, which they carry enclosed in an outer protein capsid...
. However, bacteriophage research did not lead the genomics revolution, which is clearly dominated by bacterial genomics. Only very recently has the study of bacteriophage genomes become prominent, thereby enabling researchers to understand the mechanisms underlying phage evolution. Bacteriophage genome sequences can be obtained through direct sequencing of isolated bacteriophages, but can also be derived as part of microbial genomes. Analysis of bacterial genomes has shown that a substantial amount of microbial DNA consists of prophage
Prophage
A prophage is a phage genome inserted and integrated into the circular bacterial DNA chromosome. A prophage, also known as a temperate phage, is any virus in the lysogenic cycle; it is integrated into the host chromosome or exists as an extrachromosomal plasmid. Technically, a virus may be called...
sequences and prophage-like elements. A detailed database mining of these sequences offers insights into the role of prophages in shaping the bacterial genome.
Cyanobacteria genomics
At present there are 24 cyanobacteria for which a total genome sequence is available. 15 of these cyanobacteria come from the marine environment. These are six ProchlorococcusProchlorococcus
Prochlorococcus is a genus of very small marine cyanobacteria with an unusual pigmentation . These bacteria belong to the photosynthetic picoplankton and are probably the most abundant photosynthetic organism on Earth....
strains, seven marine Synechococcus
Synechococcus
Synechococcus is a unicellular cyanobacterium that is very widespread in the marine environment. Its size varies from 0.8 µm to 1.5 µm...
strains, Trichodesmium erythraeum IMS101 and Crocosphaera watsonii WH8501. Several studies have demonstrated how these sequences could be used very successfully to infer important ecological and physiological characteristics of marine cyanobacteria. However, there are many more genome projects currently in progress, amongst those there are further Prochlorococcus
Prochlorococcus
Prochlorococcus is a genus of very small marine cyanobacteria with an unusual pigmentation . These bacteria belong to the photosynthetic picoplankton and are probably the most abundant photosynthetic organism on Earth....
and marine Synechococcus
Synechococcus
Synechococcus is a unicellular cyanobacterium that is very widespread in the marine environment. Its size varies from 0.8 µm to 1.5 µm...
isolates, Acaryochloris and Prochloron
Prochloron
Prochloron is a unicellular oxygenic photosynthetic prokaryote commonly found as symbionts in coral reefs, particularly in didemnid ascidians...
, the N2-fixing filamentous cyanobacteria Nodularia spumigena, Lyngbya aestuarii and Lyngbya majuscula
Lyngbya majuscula
Lyngbya majuscula is a species of cyanobacteria in the genus Lyngbya. Lyngbya majuscula grows on seagrass and is one of the causes of the human skin irritation seaweed dermatitis. It is known as fireweed in Australia and stinging limu in Hawai'i.The prevalence of this organism appears to be on the...
, as well as bacteriophage
Bacteriophage
A bacteriophage is any one of a number of viruses that infect bacteria. They do this by injecting genetic material, which they carry enclosed in an outer protein capsid...
s infecting marine cyanobaceria. Thus, the growing body of genome information can also be tapped in a more general way to address global problems by applying a comparative approach. Some new and exciting examples of progress in this field are the identification of genes for regulatory RNAs, insights into the evolutionary origin of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can...
, or estimation of the contribution of horizontal gene transfer to the genomes that have been analyzed.
See also
- Computational genomicsComputational genomicsComputational genomics refers to the use of computational analysis to decipher biology from genome sequences and related data , including both DNA and RNA sequence as well as other "post-genomic" data...
- Full Genome SequencingFull genome sequencingFull genome sequencing , also known as whole genome sequencing , complete genome sequencing, or entire genome sequencing, is a laboratory process that determines the complete DNA sequence of an organism's genome at a single time...
- Genomics of domesticationGenomics of domesticationGenomics is the study of the structure, content, and evolution of genomes, or the entire genetic information of organisms. Domestication is the process by which humans alter the morphology and genes of targeted organisms in order to select for desirable traits.-Background:Since Domestication...
- ImmunomicsImmunomicsImmunomics is the study of immune system regulation and response to pathogens using genome-wide approaches. With the rise of genomic and proteomic technologies, scientists have been able to visualize biological networks and infer interrelationships between genes and/or proteins; recently, these...
- Nitrogenomics
- MetagenomicsMetagenomicsMetagenomics is the study of metagenomes, genetic material recovered directly from environmental samples. The broad field may also be referred to as environmental genomics, ecogenomics or community genomics. Traditional microbiology and microbial genome sequencing rely upon cultivated clonal cultures...
- Predictive MedicinePredictive medicinePredictive medicine is a rapidly emerging field of medicine that entails predicting disease and instituting preventive measures in order to either prevent the disease altogether or significantly decrease its impact upon the patient...
- Personal genomicsPersonal genomicsPersonal genomics is the branch of genomics concerned with the sequencing and analysis of the genome of an individual. The genotyping stage employs different techniques, including single-nucleotide polymorphism analysis chips , or partial or full genome sequencing...
- ProteomicsProteomicsProteomics is the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological metabolic pathways of cells. The term "proteomics" was first coined in 1997 to make an analogy with...
- Psychogenomics
External links
- Genomics Directory: A one-stop biotechnology resource center for bioentrepreneurs, scientists, and students
- Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
- BMC Genomics: A BMC journal on Genomics
- Center for Applied Genomics: Genomics Research - a specialized Center of Emphasis at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia
- Genomics: UK companies and laboratories* Genomics journal
- Genomics and Quantitative Genetics: An international electronic, open access journal publishing, inter alia, genomics research.
- Genomics.org: An openfree wiki based Genomics portal
- NHGRI: US government's genome institute
- Pharmacogenomics in Drug Discovery and Development, a book on pharmacogenomics, diseases, personalized medicine, and therapeutics
- Tishchenko P. D. Genomics: New Science in the New Cultural Situation
- Undergraduate program on Genomic Sciences (spanish): One of the first undergraduate programs in the world
- JCVI Comprehensive Microbial Resource
- Pathema: A Clade Specific Bioinformatics Resource Center
- KoreaGenome.org: The first Korean Genome published and the sequence is available freely.
- GenomicsNetwork: Looks at the development and use of the science and technologies of genomics.
- Institute for Genome Sciences: Genomics research.
- MIT OpenCourseWare HST.512 Genomic Medicine A free, self-study course in genomic medicine. Resources include audio lectures and selected lecture notes.
- The Plant Breeding and Genomics Community of Practice on eXtension - provides education and training materials for plant breeders and allied professionals