Forensic archaeology
Encyclopedia
Forensic archaeology, a forensic science, is the application of archaeological
principles, techniques and methodologies in a legal context (predominately medicolegal
).
and other agencies to help locate evidence at a crime scene
using the skills normally used on archaeological sites to uncover evidence from the past. Forensic Archaeologists are employed to locate, excavate and record buried remains, the variety of such targets is large and each case is unique in its requirements (hence the need to use an experienced professional forensic archaeologist). However whilst the types of target that forensic archaeologists are asked to investigate are diverse the most common can be generally grouped as follows:
Excavating a grave under archaeological conditions can provide valuable evidence on the time and circumstances of burial, the manner of death, and the tools and techniques used for interment
.
Associated disciplines can aid in the fine detail from such investigations, for example the analysis of pollen, plant remains and ash from within a grave by a forensic botanist may allow the reconstruction of the environment a victim has been in prior to their burial in the grave. Similarly a Forensic Entomologist may help with the analysis of insect remains to determine the time of day or year a victim was buried.
) is required for both forensic archaeology and archaeological conservation. The forensic archaeologist studies and predicts the survival of items buried within the ground to explain the pattern of evidence found, whereas the archaeological conservator studies the same processes to stop them further destroying archaeological artifacts. Study of the degradation processes of a human body after death correlates to the survival of associated items and trace evidence (e.g., fingerprints, hairs, DNA
, paint flakes, etc.) useful to law enforcement or other authorities.
, satellite imagery
, surveying
and excavation.
When dealing with human remains the traditional disciplines associated with archaeology can also be of benefit to an investigation and the study of osteoarchaeology (the archaeological study of the skeleton). This has led, in the UK, to the adoption of the US field of study of forensic anthropology, which uses the human skeletal remains to help determine the age, sex, height, manner of death etc. of an individual. The addition of techniques from palaeopathology (the study of human skeletal remains to understand the health of individuals in the past) to forensic anthropology has allowed the examination of injuries prior to (ante-mortem), around (peri-mortem), and after (post-mortem) the time of death of a victim as well as helping identify individuals from their medical records.
Prior to the development of forensic archaeology in the mid 1990s, it was more common for police to dig out a grave hurriedly in pursuit of the body without looking more closely at its archaeological context
. The use of 1-m grids often led to a confused evidential record with items found in the soil from a grave being associated with several grid numbers instead of labeling the grave soil & body (a context number) and associating items found in the grave (evidence) with that label.
As well as being used in individual criminal cases, forensic archaeologists have been employed by international organizations such as the UN to excavate war crime
or genocide
graves at several sites in the former Yugoslavia
, Rwanda
and Iraq
. There is also a role in the developing area of Disaster Victim Identification (DVI), where archaeological approaches to large disaster scenes may help with both the correct identification of bodies or body parts and also any later police or other authorities investigation (e.g., terrorist attacks, plane crashes).
In the United Kingdom
it was one of the Council for the Registration of Forensic Practitioners (CRFP) specialisms, however, following the ceasation of trading by CRFP in march 2009, forensic archaeology (along with most other forensic fields) is currently without a regulatory system, pending the recommendations of the Forensic Regulator, although forensic archaeology is also covered by the professional body for archaeologists, The Institute for Archaeologists (formerly the Institute of Field Archaeologists).
Archaeology
Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of human society, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes...
principles, techniques and methodologies in a legal context (predominately medicolegal
Medicolegal
Medicolegal is something that involves both medical and legal aspects, mainly:*Medical jurisprudence, a branch of medicine*Medical law, a branch of law...
).
Overview
Forensic archaeologists are employed by policePolice
The police is a personification of the state designated to put in practice the enforced law, protect property and reduce civil disorder in civilian matters. Their powers include the legitimized use of force...
and other agencies to help locate evidence at a crime scene
Crime scene
A crime scene is a location where an illegal act took place, and comprises the area from which most of the physical evidence is retrieved by trained law enforcement personnel, crime scene investigators or in rare circumstances, forensic scientists....
using the skills normally used on archaeological sites to uncover evidence from the past. Forensic Archaeologists are employed to locate, excavate and record buried remains, the variety of such targets is large and each case is unique in its requirements (hence the need to use an experienced professional forensic archaeologist). However whilst the types of target that forensic archaeologists are asked to investigate are diverse the most common can be generally grouped as follows:
- Buried small items or personal effects from a victim of crime, which may be used to corroborate a statement or contain other evidential value. This group includes evidence buried by a perpetrator of a crime to hide their involvement (e.g., weapons, money, mobile phoneMobile phoneA mobile phone is a device which can make and receive telephone calls over a radio link whilst moving around a wide geographic area. It does so by connecting to a cellular network provided by a mobile network operator...
s, etc.)
- Potential gravesites, forensic archaeology attempts to locate and recover any human remainsHuman RemainsHuman Remains is a British black comedy television series written by and starring Rob Brydon and Julia Davis. It consisted of six episodes that aired in 2000. Each episode documented the relationship of a different couple, all of whom were played by Brydon and Davis and all but two of whom were...
whilst also recording all evidence in association with the remains to reconstruct events that took place prior to the burial of the victim or victims. The grave may be sought as part of an investigation of an unsolved crime or may in some rare cases result from information gained from an individual already convicted of the crime in the absence of a grave.
- Surface body disposals where a recent victim has been concealed under fallen walls, tree branches, rubbish etc. In this case the application of archaeological stratigraphic recording to the removal of the layers of material concealing the victim can be of great evidential value. The collaboration of a forensic archaeologist, entomologist and forensic botanist in cases of this sort can allow very detailed reconstructions of the timing of the disposal and have in previous cases been decisive in proving a death was not accidental but an intentional criminal act.
- Mass graveMass graveA mass grave is a grave containing multiple number of human corpses, which may or may not be identified prior to burial. There is no strict definition of the minimum number of bodies required to constitute a mass grave, although the United Nations defines a mass grave as a burial site which...
s, usually as part of an international organisation's investigation (e.g. the United NationsUnited NationsThe United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
) where the recovery of remains is focused on both evidential recovery for future indictments (e.g. The War Crimes indictments in the International Criminal Court) and the identification of individuals remains for surviving relatives which may form a crucial role in reconciliation and breaking the cycles of violence that can continue to occur over generations in such conflicts.
- Civil cases involving buried evidence (e.g. locating former fence lines and stream courses in boundary disputes)
Excavating a grave under archaeological conditions can provide valuable evidence on the time and circumstances of burial, the manner of death, and the tools and techniques used for interment
Burial
Burial is the act of placing a person or object into the ground. This is accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing an object in it, and covering it over.-History:...
.
Associated disciplines can aid in the fine detail from such investigations, for example the analysis of pollen, plant remains and ash from within a grave by a forensic botanist may allow the reconstruction of the environment a victim has been in prior to their burial in the grave. Similarly a Forensic Entomologist may help with the analysis of insect remains to determine the time of day or year a victim was buried.
Applications
Forensic archaeologists participate in both the location and excavation of buried remains, recovering human remains, personal effects, weapons, stolen goods, and other potential evidence of the crime or mishap. Forensic archaeology has developed alongside disciplines including archaeological object conservation, as a knowledge of the chemical and biological processes involved in the degradation of materials (known as taphonomyTaphonomy
Taphonomy is the study of decaying organisms over time and how they become fossilized . The term taphonomy was introduced to paleontology in 1940 by Russian scientist Ivan Efremov to describe the study of the transition of remains, parts, or products of organisms, from the biosphere, to the...
) is required for both forensic archaeology and archaeological conservation. The forensic archaeologist studies and predicts the survival of items buried within the ground to explain the pattern of evidence found, whereas the archaeological conservator studies the same processes to stop them further destroying archaeological artifacts. Study of the degradation processes of a human body after death correlates to the survival of associated items and trace evidence (e.g., fingerprints, hairs, DNA
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
, paint flakes, etc.) useful to law enforcement or other authorities.
Methods
Forensic archaeologists are field archaeologists employing a high degree of skill, knowledge and experience in field craft and technological methods to help locate, recover and interpret buried objects/evidence. The technological methods employed include geophysical prospecting, aerial photographyAerial photography
Aerial photography is the taking of photographs of the ground from an elevated position. The term usually refers to images in which the camera is not supported by a ground-based structure. Cameras may be hand held or mounted, and photographs may be taken by a photographer, triggered remotely or...
, satellite imagery
Satellite imagery
Satellite imagery consists of photographs of Earth or other planets made by means of artificial satellites.- History :The first images from space were taken on sub-orbital flights. The U.S-launched V-2 flight on October 24, 1946 took one image every 1.5 seconds...
, surveying
Surveying
See Also: Public Land Survey SystemSurveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between them...
and excavation.
When dealing with human remains the traditional disciplines associated with archaeology can also be of benefit to an investigation and the study of osteoarchaeology (the archaeological study of the skeleton). This has led, in the UK, to the adoption of the US field of study of forensic anthropology, which uses the human skeletal remains to help determine the age, sex, height, manner of death etc. of an individual. The addition of techniques from palaeopathology (the study of human skeletal remains to understand the health of individuals in the past) to forensic anthropology has allowed the examination of injuries prior to (ante-mortem), around (peri-mortem), and after (post-mortem) the time of death of a victim as well as helping identify individuals from their medical records.
Prior to the development of forensic archaeology in the mid 1990s, it was more common for police to dig out a grave hurriedly in pursuit of the body without looking more closely at its archaeological context
Archaeological context
In archaeology, not only the context of a discovery is a significant fact, but the formation of the context is as well. An archaeological context is an event in time which has been preserved in the archaeological record. The cutting of a pit or ditch in the past is a context, whilst the material...
. The use of 1-m grids often led to a confused evidential record with items found in the soil from a grave being associated with several grid numbers instead of labeling the grave soil & body (a context number) and associating items found in the grave (evidence) with that label.
As well as being used in individual criminal cases, forensic archaeologists have been employed by international organizations such as the UN to excavate war crime
War crime
War crimes are serious violations of the laws applicable in armed conflict giving rise to individual criminal responsibility...
or genocide
Genocide
Genocide is defined as "the deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, religious, or national group", though what constitutes enough of a "part" to qualify as genocide has been subject to much debate by legal scholars...
graves at several sites in the former Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia refers to three political entities that existed successively on the western part of the Balkans during most of the 20th century....
, Rwanda
Rwanda
Rwanda or , officially the Republic of Rwanda , is a country in central and eastern Africa with a population of approximately 11.4 million . Rwanda is located a few degrees south of the Equator, and is bordered by Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo...
and Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
. There is also a role in the developing area of Disaster Victim Identification (DVI), where archaeological approaches to large disaster scenes may help with both the correct identification of bodies or body parts and also any later police or other authorities investigation (e.g., terrorist attacks, plane crashes).
In the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
it was one of the Council for the Registration of Forensic Practitioners (CRFP) specialisms, however, following the ceasation of trading by CRFP in march 2009, forensic archaeology (along with most other forensic fields) is currently without a regulatory system, pending the recommendations of the Forensic Regulator, although forensic archaeology is also covered by the professional body for archaeologists, The Institute for Archaeologists (formerly the Institute of Field Archaeologists).
Universities in the US
Universities in the UK
Other organizations
- American Academy of Forensic Science
- The British Association for Human Identification
- The Centre for International Forensic Assistance
- The Forensic Science Service
- The Forensic Science Society
- The Inforce Foundation
- Institute for Archaeologists - Forensic Archaeology Special Interest Group
- Forensic Archaeology Recovery
- Register of Professional Archaeologists