Egyptian nationalism
Encyclopedia
Egyptian nationalism is an ideology that rose to prominence in Egypt before the British occupation to Egypt
.
(Muslims from the Caucasus region), or other foreign extraction. In 1881–1882, Egyptians formed several societies, usually lumped together as the “National Party,” that demanded constitutional rule, fought the Anglo-French Dual Control, and resisted Britain’s invasion of Egypt to protect the Suez Canal
and the rights of European creditors. The invasion triumphed, ‘Urâbî was arrested and exiled, and the party was disbanded.
In the early years of Britain’s military occupation, there was little overt resistance, because Egypt’s viceroy, Khedive Tawfîq
(r. 1879–1892), suppressed it. Nationalism
revived after the succession of his son, ‘Abbâs Hilmî II
(r.1892–1914). Various European and Near Eastern palace functionaries urged the young khedive to resist Britain’s consul general in Cairo
, Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer
), who was Egypt’s de facto ruler. Although Cromer’s access to military reinforcements from Britain
intimidated the khedive’s backers, there arose in his place an informal opposition movement that also called itself the “National Party.” Its leader was Mustafâ Kâmil, a French-trained lawyer who initially served as a liaison between ‘Abbâs and potential European and Ottoman
backers. As he became better known, Kâmil founded a daily newspaper, al-Liwâ (“The Banner”), a boys’ school, and a political party open to all Egyptians seeking to end the British occupation. The revived National Party appealed to students, young professionals, and seekers of government jobs who felt their access was blocked by the influx of British subjects serving in Egyptian ministries. Most Egyptians were enraged by the 1906 Dinshawây Incident
, in which several peasants were hanged, flogged, or jailed for assaulting British officers who entered the Nile Delta
village of Dinshawây to shoot pigeons, which Egyptians keep as barnyard fowl, and opened fire on the villagers, wounding five, and set fire to the grain of an Egyptian peasant called Abd-el-Nebi and injured his wife. The Nationalists also wanted Khedive ‘Abbâs to grant them a constitution with an elected parliament to whom his ministers would be responsible, reducing the power of British advisers in the Egyptian government. Soon after Kâmil became president of the National Party, he died in 1908 at age thirty-three. The large-scale demonstrations of grief at his funeral testified to his support from the Egyptian people.
Soon after Kâmil’s death, the Nationalists elected their party’s vice president, Muhammad Farîd
, as its new leader. Although less charismatic than his predecessor, Farîd was high-principled, financially independent, and determined to continue the independence struggle. In addition to organizing party branches throughout Egypt, he also set up workers’ night schools and consumer cooperatives and lent support to the growing trade union movement. He continued to court European support but also strengthened ties with the Ottoman government and hired Shaykh ‘Abd al-’Azîz Jâwîsh, an Islamist writer, to edit al-Liwâ. Jâwîsh soon antagonized both the Copts and the British and, although popular with many Muslim students, moved the National Party toward extremism. When a Nationalist murdered Egypt’s prime minister, Butros Ghâlî
, in 1910, the Egyptian government (abetted by its British advisers) curbed the Nationalists. Within two years, both Farîd and Jawîsh, having served prison terms, sought refuge in Istanbul
. The National Party, with many of its newspapers banned, went into eclipse.
Concurrent with the Nationalists were two other self-styled Egyptian “parties”: Hizb al-Umma (“Party of the People”) and Hizb al-Islâh al-Dustûrî (“Constitutional Reform Party”). The Umma Party, composed of landowners and intellectuals, advocated a gradual winning of independence, to be achieved by cooperation with Britain in educating the Egyptian people and showing them the rights and duties of citizenship. It upheld Egyptian interests and denounced pan-Islam, shunning both Khedive ‘Abbâs and the Ottoman Empire
. The Islâh Party, however, upheld the khedive’s rights and advocated Islamic unity. Neither was as popular as the National Party.
When World War I
began, Britain severed Egypt’s ties with the Ottoman Empire
(which in November 1914 joined the war on the side of the Central Powers
), deposed ‘Abbâs, declared a British protectorate
over Egypt, and barred all nationalist activity for the duration of the war. Although Egypt’s cabinet ministers, legislative leaders, and people did not want these changes, Britain’s military presence, augmented to protect the Suez Canal
after an Ottoman-German attack
in 1915, squelched all opposition. Wartime conditions led to price inflation, restrictions on the acreage allotted to growing cotton, martial law and tight controls on civil liberties, conscription of Egyptians for the campaign to take Palestine
and Syria
from the Ottomans, and requisition of draft animals and foodstuffs from the peasants.
During the war Egyptians hoped that the British would withdraw their troops as soon as it ended, or that they could persuade Britain’s allies to back their cause. The idea of sending representatives to the postwar talks may have come from Sultan Fuâd
(r. 1917–1936). The proposed delegation’s charter members were Saad Zaghlûl, ‘Alî Sha’râwî, ‘Abd al-’ Azîz Fahmî, Ahmad Lutfî al-Sayyid, ‘Abd al-Latîf al-Makabbâtî, Muhammad ‘Alî ‘Allûba, Hamad al-Bâsil, and Sînût Hannâ, most of whom had belonged to the Umma Party. They opened their campaign with a visit by Zaghlûl, Fahmî, and Sha’râwî to Britain’s high commissioner, Sir Reginald Wingate, in November 1918, two days after the Armistice, stating their desire to go to London to negotiate with the Foreign Office for an end to the British Protectorate. A similar request was made the same day by Premier Husayn Rushdî and ‘Adlî Yakan
. The British Foreign Office replied that it was too busy preparing for the Paris Peace Conference
to meet even an official Egyptian deputation, let alone Zaghlûl, who was convening Egyptian legislators, demanding complete independence, and proposing to head a delegation to the Peace Conference. When Britain challenged the credentials of Zaghlûl and his friends to represent Egypt, his followers set up a committee to gather contributions and circulate petitions, authorizing their wafd (delegation) to speak for the Egyptian people. Wingate banned political meetings, and the Interior Ministry seized some of the petitions, but Rushdî and ‘Adlî resigned from the cabinet when the Foreign Office refused to see even them. Zaghlûl and his backers sent memoranda to the conference, the US President Woodrow Wilson
, the representatives of the Western powers in Egypt, and foreign residents.
Although the Wafd
’s main aim was to achieve Egypt’s complete independence by peaceful means, Britain’s failure to gauge the Wafd’s popularity led to repressive measures in March, including the internment of Zaghlûl and three of his associates, sparking the nationwide 1919 Revolution
, in which all classes and religions joined in opposing the British; even women took part in demonstrations. London appointed General Allenby
to replace Wingate as high commissioner and authorized him to take any measures necessary to restore order. Allenby suppressed the violence but also declared Zaghlûl free to go to Paris
. The other Wafdists drew up a covenant, chose Zaghlûl as president of the Wafd, and bound themselves not to negotiate in its name with persons of political standing without his permission. Formally organized like a European political party, the Wafd delegated many powers to its leader. Once Zaghlûl was free to go to the Peace Conference, the other seventeen members of the Egyptian delegation met before their departure to form a central committee to gather funds and information on Egypt’s situation. It became the nerve center of Egyptian resistance to British rule. When Britain dispatched the Milner
Mission to Egypt, the Central Committee set up a boycott and demonstrations against it.
The Wafd’s hopes of addressing the conference were dashed when the US government formally recognized the British Protectorate. Unable to make its case directly, the Wafd’s members issued manifestos and met other delegates, seeking supporters for independence. In 1920 Lord Milner and Zaghlûl held informal talks on the Egyptian question without reaching an agreement. New disturbances erupted in 1921, and the British again exiled Zaghlûl. Some of the men who had left the Wafd formed the Constitutional Liberal Party (similar to the Umma Party) and drafted Egypt’s 1923 Constitution. Once it took effect, the Wafd reconstituted itself as a party to run candidates in the first parliamentary elections, but many Wafdists continued to see themselves as standard-bearers of Egyptian nationalism rather than as a partisan movement.
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
.
History
It is first used to refer to the native officers’ movement, led by Col. Ahmad ‘Urâbî, against Egyptian government policies that favored officers of Turkish, CircassianAdyghe people
The Adyghe or Adygs , also often known as Circassians or Cherkess, are in origin a North Caucasian ethnic groupwho were displaced in the course of the Russian conquest of the Caucasus in the 19th century, especially after the Russian–Circassian War of 1862.Adyghe people mostly speak Adyghe and most...
(Muslims from the Caucasus region), or other foreign extraction. In 1881–1882, Egyptians formed several societies, usually lumped together as the “National Party,” that demanded constitutional rule, fought the Anglo-French Dual Control, and resisted Britain’s invasion of Egypt to protect the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
and the rights of European creditors. The invasion triumphed, ‘Urâbî was arrested and exiled, and the party was disbanded.
Tewfik Pasha
HH Muhammed Tewfik Pasha ' was Khedive of Egypt and Sudan between 1879 and 1892, and the sixth ruler from the Muhammad Ali Dynasty.-Early life:...
(r. 1879–1892), suppressed it. Nationalism
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
revived after the succession of his son, ‘Abbâs Hilmî II
Abbas II of Egypt
HH Abbas II Hilmi Bey was the last Khedive of Egypt and Sudan .-Early life:...
(r.1892–1914). Various European and Near Eastern palace functionaries urged the young khedive to resist Britain’s consul general in Cairo
Cairo
Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...
, Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer
Earl of Cromer
Earl of Cromer is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1901 for Evelyn Baring, 1st Viscount Cromer, the long-time British Consul-General in Egypt...
), who was Egypt’s de facto ruler. Although Cromer’s access to military reinforcements from Britain
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
intimidated the khedive’s backers, there arose in his place an informal opposition movement that also called itself the “National Party.” Its leader was Mustafâ Kâmil, a French-trained lawyer who initially served as a liaison between ‘Abbâs and potential European and Ottoman
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
backers. As he became better known, Kâmil founded a daily newspaper, al-Liwâ (“The Banner”), a boys’ school, and a political party open to all Egyptians seeking to end the British occupation. The revived National Party appealed to students, young professionals, and seekers of government jobs who felt their access was blocked by the influx of British subjects serving in Egyptian ministries. Most Egyptians were enraged by the 1906 Dinshawây Incident
Denshawai Incident
The Denshawai Incident is the name given to a dispute which occurred in 1906 between British military officers and locals in Egypt, believed to mark a turning point in the British presence in that country...
, in which several peasants were hanged, flogged, or jailed for assaulting British officers who entered the Nile Delta
Nile Delta
The Nile Delta is the delta formed in Northern Egypt where the Nile River spreads out and drains into the Mediterranean Sea. It is one of the world's largest river deltas—from Alexandria in the west to Port Said in the east, it covers some 240 km of Mediterranean coastline—and is a rich...
village of Dinshawây to shoot pigeons, which Egyptians keep as barnyard fowl, and opened fire on the villagers, wounding five, and set fire to the grain of an Egyptian peasant called Abd-el-Nebi and injured his wife. The Nationalists also wanted Khedive ‘Abbâs to grant them a constitution with an elected parliament to whom his ministers would be responsible, reducing the power of British advisers in the Egyptian government. Soon after Kâmil became president of the National Party, he died in 1908 at age thirty-three. The large-scale demonstrations of grief at his funeral testified to his support from the Egyptian people.
Soon after Kâmil’s death, the Nationalists elected their party’s vice president, Muhammad Farîd
Mohammad Farid
This article is about the Egyptian political figure. For the former Afghan football coach, see Mohammad Farid Mohammad Farid or Muhammad Farîd was an influential Egyptian political figure of Turkish ancestry...
, as its new leader. Although less charismatic than his predecessor, Farîd was high-principled, financially independent, and determined to continue the independence struggle. In addition to organizing party branches throughout Egypt, he also set up workers’ night schools and consumer cooperatives and lent support to the growing trade union movement. He continued to court European support but also strengthened ties with the Ottoman government and hired Shaykh ‘Abd al-’Azîz Jâwîsh, an Islamist writer, to edit al-Liwâ. Jâwîsh soon antagonized both the Copts and the British and, although popular with many Muslim students, moved the National Party toward extremism. When a Nationalist murdered Egypt’s prime minister, Butros Ghâlî
Boutros Ghali
Boutros Ghali was the Prime Minister of Egypt from 1908 to 1910. He was a Coptic Christian.Ghali was accused of favouring the British in the Denshawai incident and on February 20, 1910, was assassinated by Ibrahim Nassif al-Wardani, a young pharmacology graduate who had just returned from the...
, in 1910, the Egyptian government (abetted by its British advisers) curbed the Nationalists. Within two years, both Farîd and Jawîsh, having served prison terms, sought refuge in Istanbul
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
. The National Party, with many of its newspapers banned, went into eclipse.
Concurrent with the Nationalists were two other self-styled Egyptian “parties”: Hizb al-Umma (“Party of the People”) and Hizb al-Islâh al-Dustûrî (“Constitutional Reform Party”). The Umma Party, composed of landowners and intellectuals, advocated a gradual winning of independence, to be achieved by cooperation with Britain in educating the Egyptian people and showing them the rights and duties of citizenship. It upheld Egyptian interests and denounced pan-Islam, shunning both Khedive ‘Abbâs and the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
. The Islâh Party, however, upheld the khedive’s rights and advocated Islamic unity. Neither was as popular as the National Party.
When World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
began, Britain severed Egypt’s ties with the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
(which in November 1914 joined the war on the side of the Central Powers
Central Powers
The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...
), deposed ‘Abbâs, declared a British protectorate
Protectorate
In history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...
over Egypt, and barred all nationalist activity for the duration of the war. Although Egypt’s cabinet ministers, legislative leaders, and people did not want these changes, Britain’s military presence, augmented to protect the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
after an Ottoman-German attack
First Suez Offensive
The First Suez Offensive took place between the Ottoman Empire and the British Empire in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I...
in 1915, squelched all opposition. Wartime conditions led to price inflation, restrictions on the acreage allotted to growing cotton, martial law and tight controls on civil liberties, conscription of Egyptians for the campaign to take Palestine
Palestine
Palestine is a conventional name, among others, used to describe the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River, and various adjoining lands....
and Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
from the Ottomans, and requisition of draft animals and foodstuffs from the peasants.
Fuad I of Egypt
Fuad I was the Sultan and later King of Egypt and Sudan, Sovereign of Nubia, Kordofan, and Darfur. The ninth ruler of Egypt and Sudan from the Muhammad Ali Dynasty, he became Sultan of Egypt and Sudan in 1917, succeeding his elder brother Sultan Hussein Kamel...
(r. 1917–1936). The proposed delegation’s charter members were Saad Zaghlûl, ‘Alî Sha’râwî, ‘Abd al-’ Azîz Fahmî, Ahmad Lutfî al-Sayyid, ‘Abd al-Latîf al-Makabbâtî, Muhammad ‘Alî ‘Allûba, Hamad al-Bâsil, and Sînût Hannâ, most of whom had belonged to the Umma Party. They opened their campaign with a visit by Zaghlûl, Fahmî, and Sha’râwî to Britain’s high commissioner, Sir Reginald Wingate, in November 1918, two days after the Armistice, stating their desire to go to London to negotiate with the Foreign Office for an end to the British Protectorate. A similar request was made the same day by Premier Husayn Rushdî and ‘Adlî Yakan
Adli Yakan Pasha
Adli Yakan Pasha , sometimes referred to as Adly Pasha, was an Egyptian political figure. He served as Prime Minister of Egypt between 1921 and 1922, again between 1926 and 1927, and finally in 1929. He held several prominent political posts including Foreign Minister, Interior Minister and...
. The British Foreign Office replied that it was too busy preparing for the Paris Peace Conference
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
The Paris Peace Conference was the meeting of the Allied victors following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918. It took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities...
to meet even an official Egyptian deputation, let alone Zaghlûl, who was convening Egyptian legislators, demanding complete independence, and proposing to head a delegation to the Peace Conference. When Britain challenged the credentials of Zaghlûl and his friends to represent Egypt, his followers set up a committee to gather contributions and circulate petitions, authorizing their wafd (delegation) to speak for the Egyptian people. Wingate banned political meetings, and the Interior Ministry seized some of the petitions, but Rushdî and ‘Adlî resigned from the cabinet when the Foreign Office refused to see even them. Zaghlûl and his backers sent memoranda to the conference, the US President Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
, the representatives of the Western powers in Egypt, and foreign residents.
Wafd Party
The Wafd Party was a nationalist liberal political party in Egypt. It was said to be Egypt's most popular and influential political party for a period in the 1920s and 30s...
’s main aim was to achieve Egypt’s complete independence by peaceful means, Britain’s failure to gauge the Wafd’s popularity led to repressive measures in March, including the internment of Zaghlûl and three of his associates, sparking the nationwide 1919 Revolution
Egyptian Revolution of 1919
The Egyptian Revolution of 1919 was a countrywide revolution against the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan. It was carried out by Egyptians and Sudanese from different walks of life in the wake of the British-ordered exile of revolutionary leader Saad Zaghlul, and other members of the Wafd...
, in which all classes and religions joined in opposing the British; even women took part in demonstrations. London appointed General Allenby
Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby
Field Marshal Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby GCB, GCMG, GCVO was a British soldier and administrator most famous for his role during the First World War, in which he led the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in the conquest of Palestine and Syria in 1917 and 1918.Allenby, nicknamed...
to replace Wingate as high commissioner and authorized him to take any measures necessary to restore order. Allenby suppressed the violence but also declared Zaghlûl free to go to Paris
Paris
Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
. The other Wafdists drew up a covenant, chose Zaghlûl as president of the Wafd, and bound themselves not to negotiate in its name with persons of political standing without his permission. Formally organized like a European political party, the Wafd delegated many powers to its leader. Once Zaghlûl was free to go to the Peace Conference, the other seventeen members of the Egyptian delegation met before their departure to form a central committee to gather funds and information on Egypt’s situation. It became the nerve center of Egyptian resistance to British rule. When Britain dispatched the Milner
Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner
Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner KG, GCB, GCMG, PC was a British statesman and colonial administrator who played an influential leadership role in the formulation of foreign and domestic policy between the mid-1890s and early 1920s...
Mission to Egypt, the Central Committee set up a boycott and demonstrations against it.
The Wafd’s hopes of addressing the conference were dashed when the US government formally recognized the British Protectorate. Unable to make its case directly, the Wafd’s members issued manifestos and met other delegates, seeking supporters for independence. In 1920 Lord Milner and Zaghlûl held informal talks on the Egyptian question without reaching an agreement. New disturbances erupted in 1921, and the British again exiled Zaghlûl. Some of the men who had left the Wafd formed the Constitutional Liberal Party (similar to the Umma Party) and drafted Egypt’s 1923 Constitution. Once it took effect, the Wafd reconstituted itself as a party to run candidates in the first parliamentary elections, but many Wafdists continued to see themselves as standard-bearers of Egyptian nationalism rather than as a partisan movement.