Cleophis
Encyclopedia
Cleophis was the mother of Assakenos or Assacanus, the reigning war-leader of the Assakenoi or Assacani people at the time of Alexander's invasion (Curtius). The Assakenoi (Sanskrit Ashvakas
: from Ashva
= horse) were a free people (Republic
an) who formed a sub-section of the Kambojas
(q.v.) of Paropamisade and lived in parts of Swat
and Buner
valleys during Alexander's invasion. The habitat of the Assakenoi roughly corresponded to modern Kafirstan (Dr R. K. Mukerjee). Since this region was comparatively more Indo-Aryan
than Iranian
in language and culture, hence the Assakenoi have been referred to as Indians by Arrian
. Their territory stretched as far as Indus on the east with the capital at Massaga (Sanskrit Mashakavati) which was a formidable fortress situated not far to the north of the Malakand Pass
. In modern times, it corresponds to Mashkine located between the rivers Panjkora and Kunar
about 24 miles from Bajour. The Assakenoi were excellent breeders of horses as well as expert cavalrymen who also rented their cavalry services (as mercenaries), hence they also earned the popular nickname as Ashvakas i.e. expert cavalrymen. They are referred to as Ashvakayanas in Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi. The coin
s known as Vatashvaka are attributed to these peoples. There was also a western branch of the Ashvakas located in the region watered by the rivers Alishang and Kunar
. They are the Aspasioi of the classical writings. They were Iran
ian branch of the Kambojas since the classical writers address them as Aspasioi (from Iranian Aspa = horse). They are known as Ashvayanas in Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi. The dividing line between Iran
and India was approximately the Panjkora (or Guraeus) river. According to Paul Goukowsky, Iranian language was spoken on the north of Kunar where as Pracrit on its south.
). A contingent of 7,000 Kamboj
soldiers were brought from Abhisara. The Ashvakas had fought valiantly and offered a stubborn resistance to the invader in many of their strongholds. Massaga was the scene of the bloodiest fight. Alexander received a serious wound in the fighting at Massaga. The city could not be stormed even after five days (nine days according to Curius) of bloody fighting. On the fifth day, Assakenos, the Chieftain
of the Ashvakas fell a martyr
in the field. Thereupon, the supreme command of the military operations was assumed by Cleophis. Like her son, Cleophis stood determined to defend her motherland to the last extremity. The example of Cleophis assuming the command of the military operations also brought the entire women of the locality into the fighting. See also: http://san.beck.org/EC10-Social.html.
Referring to Massaga battle, Greek historian Arrian
(Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon) asserts that only 25 soldiers of Alexander had died during the five days of bloody fighting at Massaga. He further asserts that after the fall of their chieftain
, the Ashvakas
became dispirited and sent an embassy to Alexander for a ceasefire. An agreement was reached between Alexander and the tribes-people, according to which the latter were to vacate the fort and the mercenaries were to join Alexander's forces. After vacating the fort, tribes-people had gathered on a ridge
when Alexander (according to Arrian) received intelligence through his spies
that the mercenaries
did not want to fight against their own countrymen and were planning to escape during the night. Alexander surrounded the ridge and slaughtered all the tribes-men gathered there. But the accounts of Curtius
(Quintus Curtius Rufus) do not support any such train of events. The earlier accounts of Diodorus (Diodorus Siculus) also give a complete lie to the above accounts of Arrian. Diodorus, nowhere refers to any agreement whereby the tribes-men or mercenaries had agreed to join Alexander's forces but later on backed out and planned to escape under the pall of darkness. Rather, he specifically states that the tribes-people had vacated the fort in accordance with the agreement and had gone about 80 stadia when Alexander, who was 'actuated by an implacable enmity' and had kept his troops under arms, ready for action, treacherously fell upon the tribes-people and made a great slaughter of their ranks. Diodorus gives a very graphic and vivid account of the battle that had ensued and also greatly applauds the courage and heroism shown by the tribes-men and their women against Alexanderian forces. Still another Greek chronicler Plutarch
(Mestrius Plutarchus) prior to Arrian, attests that "Alexander incurred serious losses and accordingly, concluded a treaty of peace with Assaceni but, afterwards, as they were going away, set upon them while they were on the road and committed a complete carnage". Rightly therefore, Plutarch
swears at Alexander for his treacherous action and calls it "a foul blot on the his martial fame". "In view of these clear remarks, the account of Arrian seems to be a tendentious effort to window-dress a despicable act of abject treachery and perfidy". Curtius attests: "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble". The above statement also clearly shows that Alexander must have suffered heavy losses at the hands of the Assakenian Kambojas so that he consequently lost his mental poise and attacked the buildings of Massaga, thus committing arson and man-slaughter to give vent to his boiling wrath.
From the foregoing discussion, it becomes quite clear that not only did Arrian throw a veil over the treachery of Alexander, but also did he downplay the bravery and heroism of the Ashvakas
when the latter faced with sudden treacherous onslaught of Alexander. His claims that only 25 soldiers of Alexander had died in five days of bloody fighting for the control of Massaga fort, cast very serious doubts on his integrity as an impartial chronicler. The war accounts of Diodorus who preceded Arrian by about 200 years differ materially from the latter and gives a lie to Arrian. Also the accounts of Plutarch
indisputably prove that the initiative for the peace treaty came not from the Ashvakas but from Alexander himself which clearly indicates that Alexander had suffered severe losses in this battle with the Assakenoi. Arrian indeed seems to be a partial chronicler and a liar on top of it who has intentionally tried to misrepresent the historical facts.
Main article: Alexander's Conflict with the Kambojas
writers like Curtius or Justin, some people tend to believe in the tale of Cleophis's intrigue with Alexander. However, not only are the statements of various classical writers inconsistent but they are often contradictory so that the Cleophis story seems to be baseless and a mere romantic invention
in the battle-field or else fell into the enemy's hands is anybody's guess. According to Curtius and Arrian, Cleophis was captured along with her young grand daughter.
(46 c AD 127 c AD) too does not give any indication or hint of Cleophis's intrigue with Alexander. He simply reprimands Alexander for his unprincipled conduct and violation of the treaty of peace and friendship with the Ashvakas; and calls it a blot on the fair name of a great soldier.
(92 c AD–175 c AD) makes no reference whatsoever, to a Cleophis-Alexander matrimonial alliance or intrigue. He only says that Alexander captured the mother and daughter of Assakenos (Chieftain of the Ashavakas) who had been killed on the fifth day of the fighting at Massaga.
, an Roman
historian belonging to the later half of the first c AD, gives some different touches to Alexander-Cleophis episode, here and there. He says that king Assacenus had died before the invasion of Alexander and Cleophis was his mother, not wife. When the defense of the citadel became impossible on account of the extreme pressure of the enemy's assault, she "sent down envoys to the King to sue for pardon". "The Queen herself", Curtius goes on, " having placed her son; still a child, at Alexander's knees, obtained not only pardon, but permission to retain her former dignity, for she was styled queen and some believed that this indulgent treatment was accorded rather to the charms of her person than to pity for her misfortunes. At all events, afterwards she gave birth to a son who received the name Alexander whoever his father may have been"
Dr Buddha Prakash comments on the above statements of Curtius: "It is clear from this statement that Curtius himself was not sure of the veracity of the floating rumors about the marriage of Alexander with Cleophis. He was aware of these reports and mentioned them in passing without committing himself as to their correctness. Similar are the views of Dr William Woodthorpe Tarn.
, (Marcus Junianus Justinus) alone tersely mentions this event as if he treats it as a proved fact. Justin asserts that Cleophis recovered her kingdom and position by sleeping with Alexander and bore him a son called Alexander. Justin further remarks: "Queen Cleophis, for allowing her chastity to be violated, was thenceforth called by the Indians the 'royal harlot' (scortum regium).
"But Justin is very late author and his statement can not be accepted against the four historians who have better claims to be relied upon".
According to another view, Curtius himself may have invented the lurid tale to excite his Roman readers about the decadence of the opulent Orient. Berve thinks that certain elements of this episode found their way in the Candace story of the Alexander Romance.
, Regius Professor of Modern History (Oxford)
, in his Historical Essays observes that Justin
is quite a weak and careless writer. And Curtius is not more than a romantic story teller who can easily lose track and stray from truth.
writers on the personal history of Cleophis. While some writers say that Cleophis was the wife of Assakenos (the war-leader of the Ashvakas), Curtius
says that she was his mother. Arrian also refers to her as his mother. According to Curtius, Assakenos had died before Alexander's invasion but according to Arrian
, he was killed on the fifth day of the Massaga siege whereafter the supreme command went to Cleophis. It is also pointed out that Cleophis was captured along with her teen-aged granddaughter after the fall of Massaga. There are conflicting details on her own issues too. Her one son called Erix by Curtius
and Aphrikes by Diodorus had led the flying defenders of the famous fortress of Aornos against the Greeks
. Her another son said to be Amminais had recruited 7000 Kamboja
soldiery from Abhisara. According to Curtius, at the surrender of Massaga, Cleophis placed her own little son on Alexander's lap. On the other hand Metz Epitome points out that it was Cleophis's grandson (not son) whom Cleophis had placed in Alexander' lap. Curtius concedes that Cleophis later bore a son whom she named Alexander, but he does not commit himself as to the identity of the father. On the other hand Justin who is less subtle, maintains that Cleophis had born Alexander a son. But the Metz Epitome makes no mention of any baby born by Cleophis in the post-invasion period.
were a ferocious, fiercely independent and self-respecting fanatic
tribal
people who had an intense hatred of the invaders. They were the first to rise in rebellion and strike the Greek rulers, and within a year when Alexander was still in India, they had assassinated Greek Prefect (i.e. Governor) Nicanor
at Massaga and had further declared to eliminate Sisikottos who was from their own kinship and was appointed Governor
of Aornos by Alexander. It is highly doubtful that Cleophis living within this kind of culture and psychology and with one of her three grown-up warrior sons still around, could enter into an intrigue with Alexander and be a mother to an illegitimate son! Moreover, the unequivocal statements by Diodorus, the earliest Greek chronicler of this saga, that their women had also fought side by side with their menfolk and 'preferred death to a life of dishonor' clearly leaves no room for doubt about the psyche, spirit and moral/ethical values of the oriental Massaga women whom Cleophis had led and represented in the battle-field.
myth
. "The classical notices on Cleophis's matrimonial alliance with Alexander are believed to be similar to the baseless rumors about the barber-ancestry of the Nanda
s, the rulers of Magadha
and rest on false and futile slanders that become current among the credulous and misinformed people regarding high personages. But it is quite unhistorical to repose any belief in them".
The following is extract from "The Greeks in India" by celebrated Dr W. W. Tarn, who is an unquestioned authority on this subject: "The story of Alexander's intrigue with Cleophis, 'queen' of the Assaceni of Gandhara
who ruled in Massaga, is worse than untrue, it is silly; though, unlike the Amazon
and ' Memnon
's widow', Cleophis really did exist. She was not, however, a queen, for the Assaceni were part of the Asvaka
,' one of the 'free peoples' who had neither kings nor queens
(if Indians ever were ruled by queens); her son was not king, neither had he died before Alexander came, as Curtius
says; every detail in the story is wrong. Her son, actually, was ~ysµwv, the people's war-leader, and she was merely his mother, a woman with a grownup son (a war-leader would not to be very young) and also a granddaughter; few 'romantic
inventions' have miscarried worse. Even Curtius only gives the story as what 'some' believed, leaving direct affirmation to Justin".
or Arrian
, but only finds mention in the accounts of Curtius
or Justin
or the Metz Epitome of unknown authorship, all of later origin, which has led many scholars to think that story is not true but was concocted by the prurient vulgate sources. According to scholars, a lurid tale was concocted to generate a sensational material to excite the Roman
readers about the decadence of the opulent Orient
. O Seel and A. V. Gutschmid also believe that Cleophis was not part of original Alexander tradition but was inserted in Roman times (either by Trogus or by Timagenes..both familiar to Curtius) as an allusion to Cleopatara VII of Egypt
. Later on, Justin picked up the story and made it still more graphic and lurid to impress his Roman audience. Lawrence also remarks: "The story of Cleophis' relations with the Macedonian king is heavily romanticized".
Cleophis was a great leader, a valiant warrior, a skillful administrator and a true patriot who had given a befitting fight possible under the circumstances to an invader and led her people out of the unprecedented crisis at such a critical juncture of their history. It appears that being from "The Fair' Sex", she fell a victim to romantic concotions or indulgences which the weak and careless classical writers like Justin have stamped as if authentic. The women of Massaga were not merely consorts of their husbands, but, faced with adverse situations, they could rise to the occasion with display of administrative and martial skills.
accounts is reduced by the fact that we have a clear evidences of the texts being tampered with in later times. The classical writers also suffered from a superiority complex
. They held that the nation
s conquered by Alexander were barbarous and became civilized by contacts with the Greeks, by whose influence alone, the barbarian
ism was crushed. We must dismiss from our mind the notion that the statements of classical writers have any special claims to be recognised as true or authentic and based on ascertained facts. According to Dr Buddha Parkash, the historians of Alexander, (like the Indian bard
s), were motivated with the thought to exaggerate and extol, at any cost, the military achievements of their hero i.e. Alexander.
Therefore, the statements of classical writers about Cleophis also need to be examined more critically and objectively before their being accepted at their face value.
Ashvakas
The Aśvakas or Aśvakayanas, classically called the Assacenii/Assacani , is the Sanskrit name of a people who supposedly lived in northeastern Afghanistan and the Peshawar Valley. They are/were believed to be a sub-group of the Greater Kamboja tribe profusely referenced in ancient Sanskrit/Pali...
: from Ashva
Ashva
Aśvaḥ is the Sanskrit word for a "horse", one of the significant animals finding references in the Vedas as well as later Hindu scriptures. The corresponding Avestan term is aspa...
= horse) were a free people (Republic
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
an) who formed a sub-section of the Kambojas
Kambojas
The Kambojas were a kshatriya tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in Sanskrit and Pali literature.They were an Indo-Iranian tribe situated at the boundary of the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians, and appear to have moved from the Iranian into the Indo-Aryan sphere over time.The Kambojas...
(q.v.) of Paropamisade and lived in parts of Swat
Swat (Pakistan)
Swat is a valley and an administrative district in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, located close to the Afghan-Pakistan border. It is the upper valley of the Swat River, which rises in the Hindu Kush range. The capital of Swat is Saidu Sharif, but the main town in the Swat valley is Mingora...
and Buner
Buner
Chinglai Buner may refer to:* Buner Valley in Pakistan.* Buner District in Pakistan....
valleys during Alexander's invasion. The habitat of the Assakenoi roughly corresponded to modern Kafirstan (Dr R. K. Mukerjee). Since this region was comparatively more Indo-Aryan
Indo-Aryans
Indo-Aryan is an ethno-linguistic term referring to the wide collection of peoples united as native speakers of the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-Iranian family of Indo-European languages...
than Iranian
Iranian languages
The Iranian languages form a subfamily of the Indo-Iranian languages which in turn is a subgroup of Indo-European language family. They have been and are spoken by Iranian peoples....
in language and culture, hence the Assakenoi have been referred to as Indians by Arrian
Arrian
Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon , known in English as Arrian , and Arrian of Nicomedia, was a Roman historian, public servant, a military commander and a philosopher of the 2nd-century Roman period...
. Their territory stretched as far as Indus on the east with the capital at Massaga (Sanskrit Mashakavati) which was a formidable fortress situated not far to the north of the Malakand Pass
Malakand Pass
The Malakand Pass is a mountain pass in Malakand District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.The pass road begins at Dargai. The road across the pass is in good condition, but is always crowded with a continuous stream of trucks. From a viewpoint about one kilometre before the top of the pass, one can...
. In modern times, it corresponds to Mashkine located between the rivers Panjkora and Kunar
Kunar
Kunar may refer to:*Kunar Valley, Afghanistan and Pakistan*Kunar Province, Afghanistan*Kunar River, Afghanistan and Pakistan...
about 24 miles from Bajour. The Assakenoi were excellent breeders of horses as well as expert cavalrymen who also rented their cavalry services (as mercenaries), hence they also earned the popular nickname as Ashvakas i.e. expert cavalrymen. They are referred to as Ashvakayanas in Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi. The coin
Coin
A coin is a piece of hard material that is standardized in weight, is produced in large quantities in order to facilitate trade, and primarily can be used as a legal tender token for commerce in the designated country, region, or territory....
s known as Vatashvaka are attributed to these peoples. There was also a western branch of the Ashvakas located in the region watered by the rivers Alishang and Kunar
Kunar
Kunar may refer to:*Kunar Valley, Afghanistan and Pakistan*Kunar Province, Afghanistan*Kunar River, Afghanistan and Pakistan...
. They are the Aspasioi of the classical writings. They were Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
ian branch of the Kambojas since the classical writers address them as Aspasioi (from Iranian Aspa = horse). They are known as Ashvayanas in Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi. The dividing line between Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
and India was approximately the Panjkora (or Guraeus) river. According to Paul Goukowsky, Iranian language was spoken on the north of Kunar where as Pracrit on its south.
Alexander's war with Ashvakas
Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi and later against the Assakenoi. The Assakenoi (Ashvakas) had opposed the invader with an army of 20,000 cavalry, 38,000 infantry and 30 elephants (as stated by CurtiusCurtius
Curtius is a Roman nomen which may refer to:* Quintus Curtius Rufus, 1st century CE historian* Lacus Curtius, a mysterious hole in the ground in the Roman Forum* Curtius Curtius may also refer to:...
). A contingent of 7,000 Kamboj
Kamboj
The Kambojs , also Kamboh, are an ethnic community of the Punjab region. They may relate to the Kambojas, an Iranian tribe known to the people of Iron Age India and mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts and epigraphy. Kamboj is frequently used as a surname in lieu of the sub-caste or the gotra name...
soldiers were brought from Abhisara. The Ashvakas had fought valiantly and offered a stubborn resistance to the invader in many of their strongholds. Massaga was the scene of the bloodiest fight. Alexander received a serious wound in the fighting at Massaga. The city could not be stormed even after five days (nine days according to Curius) of bloody fighting. On the fifth day, Assakenos, the Chieftain
Tribal chief
A tribal chief is the leader of a tribal society or chiefdom. Tribal societies with social stratification under a single leader emerged in the Neolithic period out of earlier tribal structures with little stratification, and they remained prevalent throughout the Iron Age.In the case of ...
of the Ashvakas fell a martyr
Martyr
A martyr is somebody who suffers persecution and death for refusing to renounce, or accept, a belief or cause, usually religious.-Meaning:...
in the field. Thereupon, the supreme command of the military operations was assumed by Cleophis. Like her son, Cleophis stood determined to defend her motherland to the last extremity. The example of Cleophis assuming the command of the military operations also brought the entire women of the locality into the fighting. See also: http://san.beck.org/EC10-Social.html.
Arrian
Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon , known in English as Arrian , and Arrian of Nicomedia, was a Roman historian, public servant, a military commander and a philosopher of the 2nd-century Roman period...
(Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon) asserts that only 25 soldiers of Alexander had died during the five days of bloody fighting at Massaga. He further asserts that after the fall of their chieftain
Tribal chief
A tribal chief is the leader of a tribal society or chiefdom. Tribal societies with social stratification under a single leader emerged in the Neolithic period out of earlier tribal structures with little stratification, and they remained prevalent throughout the Iron Age.In the case of ...
, the Ashvakas
Ashvakas
The Aśvakas or Aśvakayanas, classically called the Assacenii/Assacani , is the Sanskrit name of a people who supposedly lived in northeastern Afghanistan and the Peshawar Valley. They are/were believed to be a sub-group of the Greater Kamboja tribe profusely referenced in ancient Sanskrit/Pali...
became dispirited and sent an embassy to Alexander for a ceasefire. An agreement was reached between Alexander and the tribes-people, according to which the latter were to vacate the fort and the mercenaries were to join Alexander's forces. After vacating the fort, tribes-people had gathered on a ridge
Ridge
A ridge is a geological feature consisting of a chain of mountains or hills that form a continuous elevated crest for some distance. Ridges are usually termed hills or mountains as well, depending on size. There are several main types of ridges:...
when Alexander (according to Arrian) received intelligence through his spies
SPY
SPY is a three-letter acronym that may refer to:* SPY , ticker symbol for Standard & Poor's Depositary Receipts* SPY , a satirical monthly, trademarked all-caps* SPY , airport code for San Pédro, Côte d'Ivoire...
that the mercenaries
Mercenary
A mercenary, is a person who takes part in an armed conflict based on the promise of material compensation rather than having a direct interest in, or a legal obligation to, the conflict itself. A non-conscript professional member of a regular army is not considered to be a mercenary although he...
did not want to fight against their own countrymen and were planning to escape during the night. Alexander surrounded the ridge and slaughtered all the tribes-men gathered there. But the accounts of Curtius
Curtius
Curtius is a Roman nomen which may refer to:* Quintus Curtius Rufus, 1st century CE historian* Lacus Curtius, a mysterious hole in the ground in the Roman Forum* Curtius Curtius may also refer to:...
(Quintus Curtius Rufus) do not support any such train of events. The earlier accounts of Diodorus (Diodorus Siculus) also give a complete lie to the above accounts of Arrian. Diodorus, nowhere refers to any agreement whereby the tribes-men or mercenaries had agreed to join Alexander's forces but later on backed out and planned to escape under the pall of darkness. Rather, he specifically states that the tribes-people had vacated the fort in accordance with the agreement and had gone about 80 stadia when Alexander, who was 'actuated by an implacable enmity' and had kept his troops under arms, ready for action, treacherously fell upon the tribes-people and made a great slaughter of their ranks. Diodorus gives a very graphic and vivid account of the battle that had ensued and also greatly applauds the courage and heroism shown by the tribes-men and their women against Alexanderian forces. Still another Greek chronicler Plutarch
Plutarch
Plutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
(Mestrius Plutarchus) prior to Arrian, attests that "Alexander incurred serious losses and accordingly, concluded a treaty of peace with Assaceni but, afterwards, as they were going away, set upon them while they were on the road and committed a complete carnage". Rightly therefore, Plutarch
Plutarch
Plutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
swears at Alexander for his treacherous action and calls it "a foul blot on the his martial fame". "In view of these clear remarks, the account of Arrian seems to be a tendentious effort to window-dress a despicable act of abject treachery and perfidy". Curtius attests: "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble". The above statement also clearly shows that Alexander must have suffered heavy losses at the hands of the Assakenian Kambojas so that he consequently lost his mental poise and attacked the buildings of Massaga, thus committing arson and man-slaughter to give vent to his boiling wrath.
From the foregoing discussion, it becomes quite clear that not only did Arrian throw a veil over the treachery of Alexander, but also did he downplay the bravery and heroism of the Ashvakas
Ashvakas
The Aśvakas or Aśvakayanas, classically called the Assacenii/Assacani , is the Sanskrit name of a people who supposedly lived in northeastern Afghanistan and the Peshawar Valley. They are/were believed to be a sub-group of the Greater Kamboja tribe profusely referenced in ancient Sanskrit/Pali...
when the latter faced with sudden treacherous onslaught of Alexander. His claims that only 25 soldiers of Alexander had died in five days of bloody fighting for the control of Massaga fort, cast very serious doubts on his integrity as an impartial chronicler. The war accounts of Diodorus who preceded Arrian by about 200 years differ materially from the latter and gives a lie to Arrian. Also the accounts of Plutarch
Plutarch
Plutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
indisputably prove that the initiative for the peace treaty came not from the Ashvakas but from Alexander himself which clearly indicates that Alexander had suffered severe losses in this battle with the Assakenoi. Arrian indeed seems to be a partial chronicler and a liar on top of it who has intentionally tried to misrepresent the historical facts.
Main article: Alexander's Conflict with the Kambojas
Alexander's Conflict with the Kambojas
Greek historians refer to three warlike peoples - the Astakenoi, the Aspasioi and the Assakenoi, living to the northwest of the river Indus, whom Alexander encountered during his campaign from Kapisi through Gandhara. The Aspasioi were related to the Assakenoi and were a western branch of them...
On Cleophis's alleged intrigue with Alexander
Based on the accounts of some later classicalClassical antiquity
Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world...
writers like Curtius or Justin, some people tend to believe in the tale of Cleophis's intrigue with Alexander. However, not only are the statements of various classical writers inconsistent but they are often contradictory so that the Cleophis story seems to be baseless and a mere romantic invention
Diodorus's evidence on Cleophis
Diodorus (93 c BCE 30 c BCE), the earliest historian on the subject, does not refer to any matrimonial alliance or intrigue of Cleophis with Alexander. Diodorus simply attests that after the finalisation of terms of treaty of friendship between Ashvakas and Alexander executed under oaths, Cleophis sent precious gifts to Alexander with a message that she expressed her appreciation of Alexander's greatness and assured him that she would comply with the terms of the treaty. But since Alexander himself violated the treaty by treacherously attacking the Ashvakas and the mercenaries from Abhisara as they were leaving the city, the Ashvakas led by Cleophis gave a determined fight-back to the unprincipled and treacherous invader, thus shedding the last drop of their blood. Even Ashvakan women took up arms emmasse and joined the battle fighting side by side with their husbands. Diodorus attests that Ashvakas women fought side by side with their menfolk thus 'preferring death to a life of dishonor' . This scenario shows that Cleophis had engaged herself in the fight, but it is too difficult to speculate as to what happened to her in the end—whether she fell a martyrMartyr
A martyr is somebody who suffers persecution and death for refusing to renounce, or accept, a belief or cause, usually religious.-Meaning:...
in the battle-field or else fell into the enemy's hands is anybody's guess. According to Curtius and Arrian, Cleophis was captured along with her young grand daughter.
Plutarch's evidence on Cleophis
PlutarchPlutarch
Plutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
(46 c AD 127 c AD) too does not give any indication or hint of Cleophis's intrigue with Alexander. He simply reprimands Alexander for his unprincipled conduct and violation of the treaty of peace and friendship with the Ashvakas; and calls it a blot on the fair name of a great soldier.
Arrian's evidence on Cleophis
Even ArrianArrian
Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon , known in English as Arrian , and Arrian of Nicomedia, was a Roman historian, public servant, a military commander and a philosopher of the 2nd-century Roman period...
(92 c AD–175 c AD) makes no reference whatsoever, to a Cleophis-Alexander matrimonial alliance or intrigue. He only says that Alexander captured the mother and daughter of Assakenos (Chieftain of the Ashavakas) who had been killed on the fifth day of the fighting at Massaga.
Curtius's evidence on Cleophis
CurtiusCurtius
Curtius is a Roman nomen which may refer to:* Quintus Curtius Rufus, 1st century CE historian* Lacus Curtius, a mysterious hole in the ground in the Roman Forum* Curtius Curtius may also refer to:...
, an Roman
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
historian belonging to the later half of the first c AD, gives some different touches to Alexander-Cleophis episode, here and there. He says that king Assacenus had died before the invasion of Alexander and Cleophis was his mother, not wife. When the defense of the citadel became impossible on account of the extreme pressure of the enemy's assault, she "sent down envoys to the King to sue for pardon". "The Queen herself", Curtius goes on, " having placed her son; still a child, at Alexander's knees, obtained not only pardon, but permission to retain her former dignity, for she was styled queen and some believed that this indulgent treatment was accorded rather to the charms of her person than to pity for her misfortunes. At all events, afterwards she gave birth to a son who received the name Alexander whoever his father may have been"
Dr Buddha Prakash comments on the above statements of Curtius: "It is clear from this statement that Curtius himself was not sure of the veracity of the floating rumors about the marriage of Alexander with Cleophis. He was aware of these reports and mentioned them in passing without committing himself as to their correctness. Similar are the views of Dr William Woodthorpe Tarn.
Justin's evidence on Cleophis
JustinJustin
Justin is a given name. It may refer to:People* Justin , a common given name* Justin , 3rd century Roman historian* Justin I , or Flavius Iustinius Augustus, an Eastern Roman Emperor who ruled from 518 to 527...
, (Marcus Junianus Justinus) alone tersely mentions this event as if he treats it as a proved fact. Justin asserts that Cleophis recovered her kingdom and position by sleeping with Alexander and bore him a son called Alexander. Justin further remarks: "Queen Cleophis, for allowing her chastity to be violated, was thenceforth called by the Indians the 'royal harlot' (scortum regium).
"But Justin is very late author and his statement can not be accepted against the four historians who have better claims to be relied upon".
According to another view, Curtius himself may have invented the lurid tale to excite his Roman readers about the decadence of the opulent Orient. Berve thinks that certain elements of this episode found their way in the Candace story of the Alexander Romance.
Prof Edward A. Freeman on Justin and Curtius
On the trustworthiness of Justin and Curtius, Edward Augustus FreemanEdward Augustus Freeman
Edward Augustus Freeman was an English historian. His reputation as a historian rests largely on his History of the Norman Conquest , his longest completed book...
, Regius Professor of Modern History (Oxford)
Regius Professor of Modern History (Oxford)
The Regius Professor of Modern History at the University of Oxford is an old-established professorial position. The first appointment was made in 1724...
, in his Historical Essays observes that Justin
Justin
Justin is a given name. It may refer to:People* Justin , a common given name* Justin , 3rd century Roman historian* Justin I , or Flavius Iustinius Augustus, an Eastern Roman Emperor who ruled from 518 to 527...
is quite a weak and careless writer. And Curtius is not more than a romantic story teller who can easily lose track and stray from truth.
Conflicting views
There is no unanimity among the classicalClassical antiquity
Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world...
writers on the personal history of Cleophis. While some writers say that Cleophis was the wife of Assakenos (the war-leader of the Ashvakas), Curtius
Curtius
Curtius is a Roman nomen which may refer to:* Quintus Curtius Rufus, 1st century CE historian* Lacus Curtius, a mysterious hole in the ground in the Roman Forum* Curtius Curtius may also refer to:...
says that she was his mother. Arrian also refers to her as his mother. According to Curtius, Assakenos had died before Alexander's invasion but according to Arrian
Arrian
Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon , known in English as Arrian , and Arrian of Nicomedia, was a Roman historian, public servant, a military commander and a philosopher of the 2nd-century Roman period...
, he was killed on the fifth day of the Massaga siege whereafter the supreme command went to Cleophis. It is also pointed out that Cleophis was captured along with her teen-aged granddaughter after the fall of Massaga. There are conflicting details on her own issues too. Her one son called Erix by Curtius
Curtius
Curtius is a Roman nomen which may refer to:* Quintus Curtius Rufus, 1st century CE historian* Lacus Curtius, a mysterious hole in the ground in the Roman Forum* Curtius Curtius may also refer to:...
and Aphrikes by Diodorus had led the flying defenders of the famous fortress of Aornos against the Greeks
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
. Her another son said to be Amminais had recruited 7000 Kamboja
Kambojas
The Kambojas were a kshatriya tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in Sanskrit and Pali literature.They were an Indo-Iranian tribe situated at the boundary of the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians, and appear to have moved from the Iranian into the Indo-Aryan sphere over time.The Kambojas...
soldiery from Abhisara. According to Curtius, at the surrender of Massaga, Cleophis placed her own little son on Alexander's lap. On the other hand Metz Epitome points out that it was Cleophis's grandson (not son) whom Cleophis had placed in Alexander' lap. Curtius concedes that Cleophis later bore a son whom she named Alexander, but he does not commit himself as to the identity of the father. On the other hand Justin who is less subtle, maintains that Cleophis had born Alexander a son. But the Metz Epitome makes no mention of any baby born by Cleophis in the post-invasion period.
Cleophis over 50 at the time of Invasion
Cleophis was a widow mother of the proud and freedom-loving war leaders Assakenos, Aphrikes and Ammanais. Assakenos is stated to have been the father of a young daughter. This clearly proves that Cleophis was grandmother to a teen-aged girl and therefore, must have been over fifty at the time of invasion. It is highly improbable that an Indian woman over fifty years of age and with grand mother's status, a mother of three war-leaders who fought the invader tooth and nail to preserve their self-respect and independence and who probably were of the same age as Alexender, a lady from the most belligrant and warlike tribals of the hills, should get into intrigue with 30 year old Alexander, sleep with him and bear him an illegitimate son. A fantastic tale indeed! One should also not forget the fact that AshvakasAshvakas
The Aśvakas or Aśvakayanas, classically called the Assacenii/Assacani , is the Sanskrit name of a people who supposedly lived in northeastern Afghanistan and the Peshawar Valley. They are/were believed to be a sub-group of the Greater Kamboja tribe profusely referenced in ancient Sanskrit/Pali...
were a ferocious, fiercely independent and self-respecting fanatic
Fanaticism
Fanaticism is a belief or behavior involving uncritical zeal, particularly for an extreme religious or political cause or in some cases sports, or with an obsessive enthusiasm for a pastime or hobby...
tribal
Tribe
A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states.Many anthropologists use the term tribal society to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups .Some theorists...
people who had an intense hatred of the invaders. They were the first to rise in rebellion and strike the Greek rulers, and within a year when Alexander was still in India, they had assassinated Greek Prefect (i.e. Governor) Nicanor
Nicanor
- Ancient history :* Nicanor , 4th century BCE; an officer of Cassandrus* Nicanor , 4th century BCE; Macedonian officer, governor of Media under Antigonus...
at Massaga and had further declared to eliminate Sisikottos who was from their own kinship and was appointed Governor
Governor
A governor is a governing official, usually the executive of a non-sovereign level of government, ranking under the head of state...
of Aornos by Alexander. It is highly doubtful that Cleophis living within this kind of culture and psychology and with one of her three grown-up warrior sons still around, could enter into an intrigue with Alexander and be a mother to an illegitimate son! Moreover, the unequivocal statements by Diodorus, the earliest Greek chronicler of this saga, that their women had also fought side by side with their menfolk and 'preferred death to a life of dishonor' clearly leaves no room for doubt about the psyche, spirit and moral/ethical values of the oriental Massaga women whom Cleophis had led and represented in the battle-field.
Unproven and false allegation
Most scholars therefore, reject Justin's version of the Cleophis-Alexander intrigue as nothing more than a rumor-based romanticRomantic love
Romance is the pleasurable feeling of excitement and mystery associated with love.In the context of romantic love relationships, romance usually implies an expression of one's love, or one's deep emotional desires to connect with another person....
myth
Mythology
The term mythology can refer either to the study of myths, or to a body or collection of myths. As examples, comparative mythology is the study of connections between myths from different cultures, whereas Greek mythology is the body of myths from ancient Greece...
. "The classical notices on Cleophis's matrimonial alliance with Alexander are believed to be similar to the baseless rumors about the barber-ancestry of the Nanda
Nanda Dynasty
The Nanda Empire originated from the region of Magadha in Ancient India during the 5th and 4th centuries BC. At its greatest extent, the Nanda Empire extended from Bengal in the east, to Punjab in the west and as far south as the Vindhya Range...
s, the rulers of Magadha
Magadha
Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas or kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganga; its first capital was Rajagriha then Pataliputra...
and rest on false and futile slanders that become current among the credulous and misinformed people regarding high personages. But it is quite unhistorical to repose any belief in them".
The following is extract from "The Greeks in India" by celebrated Dr W. W. Tarn, who is an unquestioned authority on this subject: "The story of Alexander's intrigue with Cleophis, 'queen' of the Assaceni of Gandhara
Gandhara
Gandhāra , is the name of an ancient kingdom , located in northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. Gandhara was located mainly in the vale of Peshawar, the Potohar plateau and on the Kabul River...
who ruled in Massaga, is worse than untrue, it is silly; though, unlike the Amazon
Amazons
The Amazons are a nation of all-female warriors in Greek mythology and Classical antiquity. Herodotus placed them in a region bordering Scythia in Sarmatia...
and ' Memnon
Memnon
Memnon may refer to:* Saint Memnon the Wonderworker — early Christian saint from Egypt, hermit and hegumen of one of Egyptian monasteries* Memnon and those erroneously named after him in the Graeco-Roman era:...
's widow', Cleophis really did exist. She was not, however, a queen, for the Assaceni were part of the Asvaka
Ashvakas
The Aśvakas or Aśvakayanas, classically called the Assacenii/Assacani , is the Sanskrit name of a people who supposedly lived in northeastern Afghanistan and the Peshawar Valley. They are/were believed to be a sub-group of the Greater Kamboja tribe profusely referenced in ancient Sanskrit/Pali...
,' one of the 'free peoples' who had neither kings nor queens
Monarch
A monarch is the person who heads a monarchy. This is a form of government in which a state or polity is ruled or controlled by an individual who typically inherits the throne by birth and occasionally rules for life or until abdication...
(if Indians ever were ruled by queens); her son was not king, neither had he died before Alexander came, as Curtius
Curtius
Curtius is a Roman nomen which may refer to:* Quintus Curtius Rufus, 1st century CE historian* Lacus Curtius, a mysterious hole in the ground in the Roman Forum* Curtius Curtius may also refer to:...
says; every detail in the story is wrong. Her son, actually, was ~ysµwv, the people's war-leader, and she was merely his mother, a woman with a grownup son (a war-leader would not to be very young) and also a granddaughter; few 'romantic
Romantic love
Romance is the pleasurable feeling of excitement and mystery associated with love.In the context of romantic love relationships, romance usually implies an expression of one's love, or one's deep emotional desires to connect with another person....
inventions' have miscarried worse. Even Curtius only gives the story as what 'some' believed, leaving direct affirmation to Justin".
Conclusions
In nutshell, the story of Cleophis does not appear in the works of earlier writers on Alexander i.e.Diodorus, PlutarchPlutarch
Plutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
or Arrian
Arrian
Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon , known in English as Arrian , and Arrian of Nicomedia, was a Roman historian, public servant, a military commander and a philosopher of the 2nd-century Roman period...
, but only finds mention in the accounts of Curtius
Curtius
Curtius is a Roman nomen which may refer to:* Quintus Curtius Rufus, 1st century CE historian* Lacus Curtius, a mysterious hole in the ground in the Roman Forum* Curtius Curtius may also refer to:...
or Justin
Justin
Justin is a given name. It may refer to:People* Justin , a common given name* Justin , 3rd century Roman historian* Justin I , or Flavius Iustinius Augustus, an Eastern Roman Emperor who ruled from 518 to 527...
or the Metz Epitome of unknown authorship, all of later origin, which has led many scholars to think that story is not true but was concocted by the prurient vulgate sources. According to scholars, a lurid tale was concocted to generate a sensational material to excite the Roman
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
readers about the decadence of the opulent Orient
Orient
The Orient means "the East." It is a traditional designation for anything that belongs to the Eastern world or the Far East, in relation to Europe. In English it is a metonym that means various parts of Asia.- Derivation :...
. O Seel and A. V. Gutschmid also believe that Cleophis was not part of original Alexander tradition but was inserted in Roman times (either by Trogus or by Timagenes..both familiar to Curtius) as an allusion to Cleopatara VII of Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
. Later on, Justin picked up the story and made it still more graphic and lurid to impress his Roman audience. Lawrence also remarks: "The story of Cleophis' relations with the Macedonian king is heavily romanticized".
Cleophis was a great leader, a valiant warrior, a skillful administrator and a true patriot who had given a befitting fight possible under the circumstances to an invader and led her people out of the unprecedented crisis at such a critical juncture of their history. It appears that being from "The Fair' Sex", she fell a victim to romantic concotions or indulgences which the weak and careless classical writers like Justin have stamped as if authentic. The women of Massaga were not merely consorts of their husbands, but, faced with adverse situations, they could rise to the occasion with display of administrative and martial skills.
On the trustworthiness of classical accounts
Scholars believe that the values of classicalClassical antiquity
Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world...
accounts is reduced by the fact that we have a clear evidences of the texts being tampered with in later times. The classical writers also suffered from a superiority complex
Superiority complex
Superiority complex refers to an exaggerated feeling of being superior to others. The term was coined by Alfred Adler , as part of his School of Individual psychology...
. They held that the nation
Nation
A nation may refer to a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent, and/or history. In this definition, a nation has no physical borders. However, it can also refer to people who share a common territory and government irrespective of their ethnic make-up...
s conquered by Alexander were barbarous and became civilized by contacts with the Greeks, by whose influence alone, the barbarian
Barbarian
Barbarian and savage are terms used to refer to a person who is perceived to be uncivilized. The word is often used either in a general reference to a member of a nation or ethnos, typically a tribal society as seen by an urban civilization either viewed as inferior, or admired as a noble savage...
ism was crushed. We must dismiss from our mind the notion that the statements of classical writers have any special claims to be recognised as true or authentic and based on ascertained facts. According to Dr Buddha Parkash, the historians of Alexander, (like the Indian bard
Bard
In medieval Gaelic and British culture a bard was a professional poet, employed by a patron, such as a monarch or nobleman, to commemorate the patron's ancestors and to praise the patron's own activities.Originally a specific class of poet, contrasting with another class known as fili in Ireland...
s), were motivated with the thought to exaggerate and extol, at any cost, the military achievements of their hero i.e. Alexander.
Therefore, the statements of classical writers about Cleophis also need to be examined more critically and objectively before their being accepted at their face value.
See also
- KambojasKambojasThe Kambojas were a kshatriya tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in Sanskrit and Pali literature.They were an Indo-Iranian tribe situated at the boundary of the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians, and appear to have moved from the Iranian into the Indo-Aryan sphere over time.The Kambojas...
- AshvakasAshvakasThe Aśvakas or Aśvakayanas, classically called the Assacenii/Assacani , is the Sanskrit name of a people who supposedly lived in northeastern Afghanistan and the Peshawar Valley. They are/were believed to be a sub-group of the Greater Kamboja tribe profusely referenced in ancient Sanskrit/Pali...
- Kamboja Horsemen
- Alexander's Conflict with the KambojasAlexander's Conflict with the KambojasGreek historians refer to three warlike peoples - the Astakenoi, the Aspasioi and the Assakenoi, living to the northwest of the river Indus, whom Alexander encountered during his campaign from Kapisi through Gandhara. The Aspasioi were related to the Assakenoi and were a western branch of them...
Books and Magazines
- Historie du bouddhisme Indien, Dr E. Lammotte
- Alexander the Great, 2003 - Cambridge University Press, W. W. Tarn
- Political History of Ancient India, 1996, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury
- The Invasion Of India By Alexander The Great As Described By Arrian, Q. Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch And Justin, J. W. McCrindle
- Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great's Ill-fated Journey Across Asia, John Prevas
- Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power, Victor Hanson
- Alexander: A History of the Origin and Growth of the Art of War from the Earliest Times to the Battle of Ipsus, 301 Bc, With a Detailed Account of the Campaigns, 1996- Da Capo Press, Theodore Ayrault Dodge
- Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction, 2002 - Oxford University Press, USA, A. B. Bosworth and E. J. Baynham
- The Wars of Alexander the Great, 2002- Osprey Publishing, Waldemar Heckel
- Classical Accounts of India, J. W. McCrindle
- History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar
- The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, S Kirpal Singh
- These Kamboja People, 1979, K. S. Dardi
- Ancient India, 2003, Dr V. D. Mahajan
- Problems of Ancient India, 2000, K. D. Sethna
- The Pathan., 1967, Olaf Caroe
- Historical Essays, Second Series, 3rd edition, Edward A. Freeman, M. A., HON. D. C. L. & LL.D., Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford, London Macmillan and Co. And New York,1892
- Alexander the Great, 2003, Dr W. W. Tarn
- Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Dr Buddha Parkash
- Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, Dr J. L. Kamboj
- Hindu Polity, A constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 140, 121, Dr K. P. Jayswal