Carding (torture)
Encyclopedia
Carding is a sometimes-fatal form of torture
in which iron comb
s of the sort originally designed as woolcarding
tools are used to scrape, tear, and flay
the victim's flesh.
and other fibres for worsted-spun thread
. Used for combing
rough fibres, these instruments resembled miniature garden rake
s rather than the modern, short-toothed carders
that are used to prepare wool for spinning
and which resemble brushes for dog grooming
.
, was recorded by Herodotus
. Later mentions from the Middle East
and Asia Minor
often associate carding with heroic martyrdom for the sake of belief in the Abrahamic God and loyalty to one's Jewish, Christian
, or Muslim
faith. Specific episodes of carding are mentioned in the Talmud
and in the martyrologies
of several Christian
saint
s, notably Saint Blasius
, whose iconic attribute was the carding-comb. Khabbab ibn al-Aratt
, a companion of Muhammad
and one of the first ten persons to convert to Islam
, taught that a man should remain faithful to Islam
even if his flesh should be torn away from his bones with an iron comb.
's half-brother Pantaleon
failed to seize and hold the throne of the Lydian Empire, one of his supporters was captured. According to the description given by Herodotus, Croesus tortured the life out of his captive by having him "hauled over a carding-comb."
As described in the Mishnah
, Akiba ben Joseph, a Judea
n tanna
of the latter part of the 1st century and the beginning of the 2nd century, said the Shema prayer as he was carded to death by agents of Ancient Rome
. Evoking this memorable incident, a writer for Haaretz
metaphor
ically described political corruption
in contemporary Israel
as "an iron comb of torture."
Carding continued to be used as means of torture during the persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire
. The Acts of St. Blaise, a Greek
text describing the 3rd century Armenian
bishop
Saint Blaise
, recount how he was captured by the governor of Cappadocia
and beaten, carded, and beheaded for not renouncing Christianity
. Eventually becoming a popular saint in Medieval Europe and venerated as one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers
, the frequent depiction of St. Blaise in iconography
with the iron combs of his martyrdom led to his adoption as the patron saint
of wool combers in particular and the wool trade in general.
St. Antonius of Beba, a martyr venerated in the Coptic Orthodox Church, was also tortured with iron combs before being beheaded. St. Hilaria, another Coptic martyr, survived torture by combing and other sadistic methods before finally being dismembered
, beheaded, and thrown into a fire. A third Coptic martyr, the ascetic virgin St. Febronia in the reign of Emperor
Diocletian
, lived through carding, being crushed by a wheel, and other tortures, before she too was beheaded.
Torture
Torture is the act of inflicting severe pain as a means of punishment, revenge, forcing information or a confession, or simply as an act of cruelty. Throughout history, torture has often been used as a method of political re-education, interrogation, punishment, and coercion...
in which iron comb
Combing
Combing is a method for preparing carded fibre for spinning. It separates out the short fibres by means of a rotating ring of steel pins. The fibres in the 'top' it produces, have been straightened and lie parallel to each other...
s of the sort originally designed as woolcarding
Carding
Carding is a mechanical process that breaks up locks and unorganised clumps of fibre and then aligns the individual fibres so that they are more or less parallel with each other. The word is derived from the Latin carduus meaning teasel, as dried vegetable teasels were first used to comb the raw wool...
tools are used to scrape, tear, and flay
Flaying
Flaying is the removal of skin from the body. Generally, an attempt is made to keep the removed portion of skin intact.-Scope:An animal may be flayed in preparation for human consumption, or for its hide or fur; this is more commonly called skinning....
the victim's flesh.
Iron comb
The iron carding combs typically used for torture were sturdy instruments with one or two rows of teeth, each a few inches in length and designed to prepare woolWool
Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and certain other animals, including cashmere from goats, mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, vicuña, alpaca, camel from animals in the camel family, and angora from rabbits....
and other fibres for worsted-spun thread
Thread (yarn)
Thread is a kind of yarn used for sewing.-Materials:Thread is made from just about everything. Following table lists common materials, a general description and what they are supposed to be good for. If your machine will sew with the thread, any thread can used for just about any purpose. This...
. Used for combing
Combing
Combing is a method for preparing carded fibre for spinning. It separates out the short fibres by means of a rotating ring of steel pins. The fibres in the 'top' it produces, have been straightened and lie parallel to each other...
rough fibres, these instruments resembled miniature garden rake
Rake
Rake may refer to:* Rake , a horticultural implement, a long-handled tool with tines* Rake or hay rake, a farm implement* Rake or castor angle – various fork offset angles in bicycle and motorcycle geometry...
s rather than the modern, short-toothed carders
Carding
Carding is a mechanical process that breaks up locks and unorganised clumps of fibre and then aligns the individual fibres so that they are more or less parallel with each other. The word is derived from the Latin carduus meaning teasel, as dried vegetable teasels were first used to comb the raw wool...
that are used to prepare wool for spinning
Spinning (textiles)
Spinning is a major industry. It is part of the textile manufacturing process where three types of fibre are converted into yarn, then fabric, then textiles. The textiles are then fabricated into clothes or other artifacts. There are three industrial processes available to spin yarn, and a...
and which resemble brushes for dog grooming
Dog grooming
Dog grooming refers to both the hygienic care and cleaning of a dog, as well as a process by which a dog's physical appearance is enhanced for showing or other types of competition. A dog groomer is a person who earns their living grooming dogs.-Reasons for grooming:Grooming is an important part...
.
History
The tradition that a torturous death by carding with a kanphos was inflicted by CroesusCroesus
Croesus was the king of Lydia from 560 to 547 BC until his defeat by the Persians. The fall of Croesus made a profound impact on the Hellenes, providing a fixed point in their calendar. "By the fifth century at least," J.A.S...
, was recorded by Herodotus
Herodotus
Herodotus was an ancient Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus, Caria and lived in the 5th century BC . He has been called the "Father of History", and was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent and arrange them in a...
. Later mentions from the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
and Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
often associate carding with heroic martyrdom for the sake of belief in the Abrahamic God and loyalty to one's Jewish, Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
, or Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
faith. Specific episodes of carding are mentioned in the Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
and in the martyrologies
Martyrology
A martyrology is a catalogue or list of martyrs , arranged in the calendar order of their anniversaries or feasts. Local martyrologies record exclusively the custom of a particular Church. Local lists were enriched by names borrowed from neighbouring churches...
of several Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
saint
Saint
A saint is a holy person. In various religions, saints are people who are believed to have exceptional holiness.In Christian usage, "saint" refers to any believer who is "in Christ", and in whom Christ dwells, whether in heaven or in earth...
s, notably Saint Blasius
Saint Blaise
Saint Blaise was a physician, and bishop of Sebastea . According to his Acta Sanctorum, he was martyred by being beaten, attacked with iron carding combs, and beheaded...
, whose iconic attribute was the carding-comb. Khabbab ibn al-Aratt
Khabbab ibn al-Aratt
Khabbab ibn al-Aratt was a boy from Najd, from the tribe of Banu Tamim.He was among the first ten persons to convert to Islam and was a sahabi .-Early life:Khabbab was from the Banu Tamim clan in Najd....
, a companion of Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad |ligature]] at U+FDF4 ;Arabic pronunciation varies regionally; the first vowel ranges from ~~; the second and the last vowel: ~~~. There are dialects which have no stress. In Egypt, it is pronounced not in religious contexts...
and one of the first ten persons to convert to Islam
Timing of Sahaba becoming muslims
Among Muslims, the timing of Sahaba becoming Muslims is of importance. Because Muhammad was not a Sahaba, he is not included.-Introduction:After the Muslim conquests began, a Muslim's standing in the Islamic state depended on his services to the community, and especially on the length of time he...
, taught that a man should remain faithful to Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
even if his flesh should be torn away from his bones with an iron comb.
Notable victims
In the 6th century BC, when CroesusCroesus
Croesus was the king of Lydia from 560 to 547 BC until his defeat by the Persians. The fall of Croesus made a profound impact on the Hellenes, providing a fixed point in their calendar. "By the fifth century at least," J.A.S...
's half-brother Pantaleon
Pantaleon
Pantaleon was a Greek king who reigned some time between 190–180 BCE in Bactria and India. He was a younger contemporary or successor of the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius, and is sometimes believed to have been his brother and/or subking...
failed to seize and hold the throne of the Lydian Empire, one of his supporters was captured. According to the description given by Herodotus, Croesus tortured the life out of his captive by having him "hauled over a carding-comb."
As described in the Mishnah
Mishnah
The Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah". It is also the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
, Akiba ben Joseph, a Judea
Judea
Judea or Judæa was the name of the mountainous southern part of the historic Land of Israel from the 8th century BCE to the 2nd century CE, when Roman Judea was renamed Syria Palaestina following the Jewish Bar Kokhba revolt.-Etymology:The...
n tanna
Tannaim
The Tannaim were the Rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 70-200 CE. The period of the Tannaim, also referred to as the Mishnaic period, lasted about 130 years...
of the latter part of the 1st century and the beginning of the 2nd century, said the Shema prayer as he was carded to death by agents of Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
. Evoking this memorable incident, a writer for Haaretz
Haaretz
Haaretz is Israel's oldest daily newspaper. It was founded in 1918 and is now published in both Hebrew and English in Berliner format. The English edition is published and sold together with the International Herald Tribune. Both Hebrew and English editions can be read on the Internet...
metaphor
Metaphor
A metaphor is a literary figure of speech that uses an image, story or tangible thing to represent a less tangible thing or some intangible quality or idea; e.g., "Her eyes were glistening jewels." Metaphor may also be used for any rhetorical figures of speech that achieve their effects via...
ically described political corruption
Political corruption
Political corruption is the use of legislated powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as repression of political opponents and general police brutality, is not considered political corruption. Neither are illegal acts by...
in contemporary Israel
Israel
The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
as "an iron comb of torture."
Carding continued to be used as means of torture during the persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire
Persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire
The Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire is the religious persecution of Christians as a consequence of professing their faith. It began during the Ministry of Jesus and continued intermittently over a period of about three centuries until the time of Constantine when Christianity was...
. The Acts of St. Blaise, a Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
text describing the 3rd century Armenian
Armenians
Armenian people or Armenians are a nation and ethnic group native to the Armenian Highland.The largest concentration is in Armenia having a nearly-homogeneous population with 97.9% or 3,145,354 being ethnic Armenian....
bishop
Bishop
A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, in the Assyrian Church of the East, in the Independent Catholic Churches, and in the...
Saint Blaise
Saint Blaise
Saint Blaise was a physician, and bishop of Sebastea . According to his Acta Sanctorum, he was martyred by being beaten, attacked with iron carding combs, and beheaded...
, recount how he was captured by the governor of Cappadocia
Cappadocia
Cappadocia is a historical region in Central Anatolia, largely in Nevşehir Province.In the time of Herodotus, the Cappadocians were reported as occupying the whole region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine...
and beaten, carded, and beheaded for not renouncing Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
. Eventually becoming a popular saint in Medieval Europe and venerated as one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers
Fourteen Holy Helpers
The Fourteen Holy Helpers are a group of saints venerated together in Roman Catholicism because their intercession is believed to be particularly effective, especially against various diseases...
, the frequent depiction of St. Blaise in iconography
Iconography
Iconography is the branch of art history which studies the identification, description, and the interpretation of the content of images. The word iconography literally means "image writing", and comes from the Greek "image" and "to write". A secondary meaning is the painting of icons in the...
with the iron combs of his martyrdom led to his adoption as the patron saint
Patron saint
A patron saint is a saint who is regarded as the intercessor and advocate in heaven of a nation, place, craft, activity, class, clan, family, or person...
of wool combers in particular and the wool trade in general.
St. Antonius of Beba, a martyr venerated in the Coptic Orthodox Church, was also tortured with iron combs before being beheaded. St. Hilaria, another Coptic martyr, survived torture by combing and other sadistic methods before finally being dismembered
Dismemberment
Dismemberment is the act of cutting, tearing, pulling, wrenching or otherwise removing, the limbs of a living thing. It may be practiced upon human beings as a form of capital punishment, as a result of a traumatic accident, or in connection with murder, suicide, or cannibalism...
, beheaded, and thrown into a fire. A third Coptic martyr, the ascetic virgin St. Febronia in the reign of Emperor
Roman Emperor
The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period . The Romans had no single term for the office although at any given time, a given title was associated with the emperor...
Diocletian
Diocletian
Diocletian |latinized]] upon his accession to Diocletian . c. 22 December 244 – 3 December 311), was a Roman Emperor from 284 to 305....
, lived through carding, being crushed by a wheel, and other tortures, before she too was beheaded.