Capra (genus)
Encyclopedia
Capra is a genus
of mammals, the goats or wild goats, composed of up to nine species
including the wild goat
, the markhor
and several species known as ibex.
The domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus) is a domesticated subspecies
of the wild goat
(Capra aegagrus).
Wild goats are animals of mountain habitats. They are very agile and hardy, able to climb on bare rock and survive on sparse vegetation. They can be distinguished from the genus Ovis
, which includes sheep, by the presence of scent glands close to the feet, in the groin and in front of the eyes, and the absence of other facial glands, and by the presence of a beard in the males, and of hairless callus
es on the knees of the forelegs.
The Rocky Mountain goat
is in a separate genus, Oreamnos
, and is not dealt with here.
s (members of the family Bovidae) and caprids (subfamily Caprinae). All these are ruminant
s, meaning they chew the cud, and have a four-chambered stomach which plays a vital role in digesting, regurgitating and re-digesting their food.
The genus has sometimes been taken to include Ovis
(sheep) and Ammotragus (Barbary Sheep
), but these are usually regarded as distinct genera, leaving Capra for goats and ibexes. In this smaller genus, some authors have recognized only two species, the Markhor
on one side and all other forms included in one species on the other side. Today nine species are usually accepted:
The goats of the genus Capra have complex systematic relationships, which are still not completely resolved. Recent studies based on mitochondrial DNA
suggest that the Siberian ibex and the Nubian ibex represent distinct species, which are not very closely related to the physically similar Alpine ibex. The Alpine ibex forms a group with the Spanish ibex. The West Caucasian tur appears to be more closely related to the wild goat than to the East Caucasian tur. The markhor
is relatively little separated from other forms — previously it had been considered to be a separate branch of the genus.
Almost all wild goat species are allopatric (geographically separated) — the only geographical overlaps are the wild goat (Capra aegagrus) with the East Caucasian tur (Capra cylindricornis), and the markhor (Capra falconeri) with the Siberian ibex (Capra siberica). In both cases the overlapping species do not usually interbreed in the wild — however, in captivity all Capra species can interbreed, producing fertile offspring.
Along with sheep, goats were among the first domesticated animals. The domestication process started at least 10,000 years (calibrated calendar years) ago in what is now northern Iran
. Easy human access to goat hair, meat
, and milk
were the primary motivations. Goat skins were popularly used until the Middle Ages
for water and wine bottles when traveling and camping
, and in certain regions as parchment
for writing.
and Mediterranean regions. Ibex motifs are very common on cylinder seal
s and pottery, both painted and embossed.
Excavations from Minoan
Crete
at Knossos
, for example, have yielded specimens from about 1800 BC, including one cylinder seal
depicting an ibex defending itself from a hunting dog
. From the similar age a gold jewelry ibex image was found at the Akrotiri archaeological site on Santorini
in present day Greece.
An Iron Age
Capra ibex specimen was recovered at the Aq Kupruk
Archaeological site in present day Afghanistan
, illustrating either domestication or hunting of the ibex by these early peoples. However, archaeological records of ibex can be difficult to separate from those of domestic goats.
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
of mammals, the goats or wild goats, composed of up to nine species
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
including the wild goat
Wild Goat
The wild goat is a widespread species of goat, with a distribution ranging from Europe and Asia Minor to central Asia and the Middle East. It is the ancestor of the domestic goat.-Social structure:...
, the markhor
Markhor
The Markhor is a large species of wild goat that is found in northeastern Afghanistan, Pakistan , India, southern Tajikistan and southern Uzbekistan...
and several species known as ibex.
The domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus) is a domesticated subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
of the wild goat
Wild Goat
The wild goat is a widespread species of goat, with a distribution ranging from Europe and Asia Minor to central Asia and the Middle East. It is the ancestor of the domestic goat.-Social structure:...
(Capra aegagrus).
Wild goats are animals of mountain habitats. They are very agile and hardy, able to climb on bare rock and survive on sparse vegetation. They can be distinguished from the genus Ovis
Ovis
Ovis is a genus of mammals, part of the goat-antelope subfamily of the ruminant family Bovidae. Its five or more highly gregarious species are known as sheep...
, which includes sheep, by the presence of scent glands close to the feet, in the groin and in front of the eyes, and the absence of other facial glands, and by the presence of a beard in the males, and of hairless callus
Callus
A callus is an especially toughened area of skin which has become relatively thick and hard in response to repeated friction, pressure, or other irritation. Rubbing that is too frequent or forceful will cause blisters rather than allow calluses to form. Since repeated contact is required, calluses...
es on the knees of the forelegs.
The Rocky Mountain goat
Mountain goat
The Mountain Goat , also known as the Rocky Mountain Goat, is a large-hoofed mammal found only in North America. Despite its vernacular name, it is not a member of Capra, the genus of true goats...
is in a separate genus, Oreamnos
Oreamnos
Oreamnos is a genus of North American caprines. The Mountain goat is the only living species. Until the end of the Pleistocene another species, Oreamnos harringtoni, was distributed to the south of the recent form....
, and is not dealt with here.
Taxonomy
All members of the Capra genus are bovidBovid
A bovid is any of almost 140 species of cloven-hoofed ruminant mammal at least the males of which bear characteristic unbranching horns covered in a permanent sheath of keratin....
s (members of the family Bovidae) and caprids (subfamily Caprinae). All these are ruminant
Ruminant
A ruminant is a mammal of the order Artiodactyla that digests plant-based food by initially softening it within the animal's first compartment of the stomach, principally through bacterial actions, then regurgitating the semi-digested mass, now known as cud, and chewing it again...
s, meaning they chew the cud, and have a four-chambered stomach which plays a vital role in digesting, regurgitating and re-digesting their food.
The genus has sometimes been taken to include Ovis
Ovis
Ovis is a genus of mammals, part of the goat-antelope subfamily of the ruminant family Bovidae. Its five or more highly gregarious species are known as sheep...
(sheep) and Ammotragus (Barbary Sheep
Barbary sheep
The Barbary Sheep is a species of caprid native to rocky mountains in North Africa. Six subspecies have been described. Although it is rare in its native North Africa, it has been introduced to North America, southern Europe and elsewhere...
), but these are usually regarded as distinct genera, leaving Capra for goats and ibexes. In this smaller genus, some authors have recognized only two species, the Markhor
Markhor
The Markhor is a large species of wild goat that is found in northeastern Afghanistan, Pakistan , India, southern Tajikistan and southern Uzbekistan...
on one side and all other forms included in one species on the other side. Today nine species are usually accepted:
- Spanish ibexSpanish ibexThe Iberian ibex, Spanish ibex, Spanish wild goat, or Iberian wild goat is a species of ibex with four subspecies. Of these, two can still be found on the Iberian Peninsula, but the remaining two are now extinct. The Portuguese subspecies became extinct in 1892 and the Pyrenean subspecies became...
(Capra pyrenaica) - Alpine ibexAlpine IbexThe Alpine ibex, , is a species of wild goat that lives in the mountains of the European Alps. In its habitat region, the species is known as bouquetin , steinbock , and stambecco ....
(Capra ibex) - Nubian ibexNubian IbexThe Nubian ibex is a desert-dwelling goat species found in mountainous areas of Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Egypt, Ethiopia, Yemen, Sudan, and Pakistan. It is generally considered to be a subspecies of Alpine ibex, but is sometimes considered specifically distinct...
(Capra nubiana) - Siberian ibexSiberian IbexThe Siberian Ibex or Common ibex is a species of ibex that lives in central and northern Asia. It has traditionally been treated as a subspecies of the Alpine Ibex, and whether it is specifically distinct from other ibex is still not entirely clear...
(Capra sibirica) - Walia ibexWalia IbexThe walia ibex is a species of ibex that is endangered. It is sometimes considered a subspecies of the Alpine Ibex...
(Capra walie) - West Caucasian turWest Caucasian TurThe West Caucasian tur is a mountain dwelling goat antelope found only in the western half of the Caucasus Mountain range....
(Capra caucasica) - East Caucasian turEast Caucasian TurThe East Caucasian tur is a mountain dwelling goat antelope found only in the eastern half of the Caucasus Mountains....
(Capra cylindricornis) - Wild goatWild GoatThe wild goat is a widespread species of goat, with a distribution ranging from Europe and Asia Minor to central Asia and the Middle East. It is the ancestor of the domestic goat.-Social structure:...
(Capra aegagrus)- Domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus, sometimes referred to as Capra hircus; includes feral goatFeral goatThe feral goat is the domestic goat when it has become established in the wild. Feral goats occur in Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, Great Britain, Hawaii, the Galapagos and in many other parts of the world...
)
- Domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus, sometimes referred to as Capra hircus; includes feral goat
- MarkhorMarkhorThe Markhor is a large species of wild goat that is found in northeastern Afghanistan, Pakistan , India, southern Tajikistan and southern Uzbekistan...
(Capra falconeri)
The goats of the genus Capra have complex systematic relationships, which are still not completely resolved. Recent studies based on mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA is the DNA located in organelles called mitochondria, structures within eukaryotic cells that convert the chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, adenosine triphosphate...
suggest that the Siberian ibex and the Nubian ibex represent distinct species, which are not very closely related to the physically similar Alpine ibex. The Alpine ibex forms a group with the Spanish ibex. The West Caucasian tur appears to be more closely related to the wild goat than to the East Caucasian tur. The markhor
Markhor
The Markhor is a large species of wild goat that is found in northeastern Afghanistan, Pakistan , India, southern Tajikistan and southern Uzbekistan...
is relatively little separated from other forms — previously it had been considered to be a separate branch of the genus.
Almost all wild goat species are allopatric (geographically separated) — the only geographical overlaps are the wild goat (Capra aegagrus) with the East Caucasian tur (Capra cylindricornis), and the markhor (Capra falconeri) with the Siberian ibex (Capra siberica). In both cases the overlapping species do not usually interbreed in the wild — however, in captivity all Capra species can interbreed, producing fertile offspring.
Species and subspecies of goats
 |
Capra caucasica | West Caucasian tur West Caucasian Tur The West Caucasian tur is a mountain dwelling goat antelope found only in the western half of the Caucasus Mountain range.... |
 |
Capra cylindricornis | East Caucasian tur East Caucasian Tur The East Caucasian tur is a mountain dwelling goat antelope found only in the eastern half of the Caucasus Mountains.... |
 |
Capra falconeri | Markhor Markhor The Markhor is a large species of wild goat that is found in northeastern Afghanistan, Pakistan , India, southern Tajikistan and southern Uzbekistan... |
 |
Capra aegagrus | Wild goat Wild Goat The wild goat is a widespread species of goat, with a distribution ranging from Europe and Asia Minor to central Asia and the Middle East. It is the ancestor of the domestic goat.-Social structure:... |
 |
Capra (aegagrus) hircus | Domestic goat |
 |
Capra sibirica | Siberian ibex Siberian Ibex The Siberian Ibex or Common ibex is a species of ibex that lives in central and northern Asia. It has traditionally been treated as a subspecies of the Alpine Ibex, and whether it is specifically distinct from other ibex is still not entirely clear... |
 |
Capra pyrenaica | Spanish ibex Spanish ibex The Iberian ibex, Spanish ibex, Spanish wild goat, or Iberian wild goat is a species of ibex with four subspecies. Of these, two can still be found on the Iberian Peninsula, but the remaining two are now extinct. The Portuguese subspecies became extinct in 1892 and the Pyrenean subspecies became... |
| Capra walie | Walia ibex Walia Ibex The walia ibex is a species of ibex that is endangered. It is sometimes considered a subspecies of the Alpine Ibex... |
|
 |
Capra ibex | Alpine ibex Alpine Ibex The Alpine ibex, , is a species of wild goat that lives in the mountains of the European Alps. In its habitat region, the species is known as bouquetin , steinbock , and stambecco .... |
 |
Capra nubiana | Nubian ibex Nubian Ibex The Nubian ibex is a desert-dwelling goat species found in mountainous areas of Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Egypt, Ethiopia, Yemen, Sudan, and Pakistan. It is generally considered to be a subspecies of Alpine ibex, but is sometimes considered specifically distinct... |
Domestication and uses
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
. Easy human access to goat hair, meat
Meat
Meat is animal flesh that is used as food. Most often, this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs and offal...
, and milk
Milk
Milk is a white liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the primary source of nutrition for young mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mother's antibodies to the baby and can reduce the risk of many...
were the primary motivations. Goat skins were popularly used until the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
for water and wine bottles when traveling and camping
Camping
Camping is an outdoor recreational activity. The participants leave urban areas, their home region, or civilization and enjoy nature while spending one or several nights outdoors, usually at a campsite. Camping may involve the use of a tent, caravan, motorhome, cabin, a primitive structure, or no...
, and in certain regions as parchment
Parchment
Parchment is a thin material made from calfskin, sheepskin or goatskin, often split. Its most common use was as a material for writing on, for documents, notes, or the pages of a book, codex or manuscript. It is distinct from leather in that parchment is limed but not tanned; therefore, it is very...
for writing.
In ancient history
Evidence of the ibex is widely present in the archaeological record, particularly in the Near EastNear East
The Near East is a geographical term that covers different countries for geographers, archeologists, and historians, on the one hand, and for political scientists, economists, and journalists, on the other...
and Mediterranean regions. Ibex motifs are very common on cylinder seal
Cylinder seal
A cylinder seal is a cylinder engraved with a 'picture story', used in ancient times to roll an impression onto a two-dimensional surface, generally wet clay. Cylinder seals were invented around 3500 BC in the Near East, at the contemporary site of Susa in south-western Iran and at the early site...
s and pottery, both painted and embossed.
Excavations from Minoan
Minoan civilization
The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization that arose on the island of Crete and flourished from approximately the 27th century BC to the 15th century BC. It was rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century through the work of the British archaeologist Arthur Evans...
Crete
Crete
Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits...
at Knossos
Knossos
Knossos , also known as Labyrinth, or Knossos Palace, is the largest Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete and probably the ceremonial and political centre of the Minoan civilization and culture. The palace appears as a maze of workrooms, living spaces, and store rooms close to a central square...
, for example, have yielded specimens from about 1800 BC, including one cylinder seal
Cylinder seal
A cylinder seal is a cylinder engraved with a 'picture story', used in ancient times to roll an impression onto a two-dimensional surface, generally wet clay. Cylinder seals were invented around 3500 BC in the Near East, at the contemporary site of Susa in south-western Iran and at the early site...
depicting an ibex defending itself from a hunting dog
Hunting dog
A hunting dog refers to any dog who assists humans in hunting. There are several types of hunting dogs developed for various tasks. The major categories of hunting dogs include hounds, terriers, dachshunds, cur type dogs, and gun dogs...
. From the similar age a gold jewelry ibex image was found at the Akrotiri archaeological site on Santorini
Santorini
Santorini , officially Thira , is an island located in the southern Aegean Sea, about southeast from Greece's mainland. It is the largest island of a small, circular archipelago which bears the same name and is the remnant of a volcanic caldera...
in present day Greece.
An Iron Age
Iron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
Capra ibex specimen was recovered at the Aq Kupruk
Aq Kupruk
- Archaeological sites :Aq Kupruk is also an archaeological site consists of four sites, numbered I, II, III and IV.* Aq Kupruk I, or Ghar-i Asb, is a rock shelter of the Kushan-Sasanian period, containing some fregmentary Buddhist frescos and some simple architecture.* Aq Kupruk II, or Ghār-i Mār,...
Archaeological site in present day Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Afghanistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of , making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world...
, illustrating either domestication or hunting of the ibex by these early peoples. However, archaeological records of ibex can be difficult to separate from those of domestic goats.
Associations in history
It has been proven, after much historical dispute, that rock carvings and the horns of ibex were once used as a charm to encourage childbearing or to give thanks for a child by those that were involved in the Buddhism religion around the periods of 1000 B.C. to 300 A.D. As commented on by historian and archaeologist, A. H. Francke:"Our Christian evangelist at Khalatse
KhalatseKhaltse or Khalsi is a village 337 km from Srinigar on the old main road to Leh, where it crossed the Indus over an iron bridge. The population for the region is about 1,600. Much of its importance is because it is the place where the road from Kashmir debouches into the Indus Valley...
had become a father a few weeks before, and the people of the village had made presents of "flour-ibex" to him and his wife. He gave me one of those figures, which are made of flour and butter, and told me that it was a custom in Tibet and Ladakh, to make presents of "flour-ibex" on the occasion of the birth of a child. This is quite interesting information. I had often wondered why there were so many rock carvings of ibex at places connected with the pre-Buddhist religion of Ladakh. Now it appears probable that they are thank offerings after the birth of children. As I have tried to show in my previous article, people used to go to the pre-Buddhist places of worship, in particular, to pray to be blessed with children."