Bioenergetics
Encyclopedia
Bioenergetics is the subject of a field of biochemistry
that concerns energy
flow through living systems. This is an active area of biological
research that includes the study of thousands of different cellular
processes such as cellular respiration
and the many other metabolic
processes that can lead to production and utilization of energy in forms such as ATP
molecules.
concerned with the energy involved in making and breaking of chemical bonds in the molecules found in biological organism
s.
Growth
, development
and metabolism
are some of the central phenomena in the study of biological organisms. The role of energy is fundamental to such biological process
es. The ability to harness energy from a variety of metabolic pathways is a property of all living organisms. Life
is dependent on energy transformations; living organisms survive because of exchange of energy within and without.
In a living organism, chemical bond
s are broken and made as part of the exchange and transformation of energy. Energy is available for work (such as mechanical work) or for other processes (such as chemical synthesis and anabolic
processes in growth), when weak bonds are broken and stronger bonds are made. The production of stronger bonds allows release of usable energy.
Living organisms obtain energy from organic and inorganic materials. For example, lithotroph
s can oxidize minerals such as nitrate
s or forms of sulfur
, such as elemental sulfur, sulfite
s, and hydrogen sulfide
to produce ATP. In photosynthesis
, autotroph
s can produce ATP using light energy. Heterotroph
s must consume organic compounds. These are mostly carbohydrate
s, fat
s, and protein
s. The amount of energy actually obtained by the organism is lower than the amount present in the food; there are losses in digestion, metabolism, and thermogenesis
.
The materials are generally combined with oxygen
to release energy, although some can also be oxidized anaerobically by various organisms. The bonds holding the molecules of nutrient
s together and the bonds holding molecules of free oxygen together are all relatively weak compared with the chemical bonds holding carbon dioxide and water together. The utilization of these materials is a form of slow combustion
. That is why the energy content of food can be estimated with a bomb calorimeter
. The materials are oxidized slowly enough that the organisms do not actually produce fire. The oxidation releases energy because stronger bonds have been formed. This net energy may evolve as heat, or some of which may be used by the organism for other purposes, such as breaking other bonds to do chemistry.
Living organisms produce ATP from energy sources via oxidative phosphorylation
. The terminal phosphate bonds of ATP are relatively weak compared with the stronger bonds formed when ATP is broken down to adenosine monophosphate and phosphate, dissolved in water. Here it is the energy of hydration that results in energy release. This hydrolysis of ATP is used as a battery to store energy in cells, for intermediate metabolism. Utilization of chemical energy from such molecular bond rearrangement powers biological processes in every biological organism.
The free energy (ΔG) gained or lost in a reaction can be calculated: ΔG = ΔH - T ΔS.
Also, ΔG = ΔG˚' + 2.303RT log([P]/[R]) where
presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport
as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption. Crane's
discovery of cotransport
was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology and was the most important event concerning carbohydrate absorption in the 20th century.
's chemiosmotic theory
of how proton
s in aqueous solution function in the production of ATP in cell organelle
s such as mitochondria
. Other cellular sources of ATP such as glycolysis
were understood first, but such processes for direct coupling of enzyme
activity to ATP production are not the major source of useful chemical energy in most cells. Chemiosmotic coupling is the major energy producing process in most cells, being utilized in chloroplast
s and several single celled
organisms in addition to mitochondria.
is the biological homeostasis of energy
in living systems. It is measured with the following equation:
Energy intake = internal heat produced + external work + storage.
Biochemistry
Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes...
that concerns energy
Energy
In physics, energy is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems...
flow through living systems. This is an active area of biological
Biology
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...
research that includes the study of thousands of different cellular
Cell (biology)
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
processes such as cellular respiration
Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate , and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions that involve...
and the many other metabolic
Metabolism
Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories...
processes that can lead to production and utilization of energy in forms such as ATP
Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine-5'-triphosphate is a multifunctional nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme. It is often called the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism...
molecules.
Overview
Bioenergetics is the part of biochemistryBiochemistry
Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes...
concerned with the energy involved in making and breaking of chemical bonds in the molecules found in biological organism
Organism
In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homoeostasis as a stable whole.An organism may either be unicellular or, as in the case of humans, comprise...
s.
Growth
Cell growth
The term cell growth is used in the contexts of cell development and cell division . When used in the context of cell division, it refers to growth of cell populations, where one cell grows and divides to produce two "daughter cells"...
, development
Developmental biology
Developmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and "morphogenesis", which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs and anatomy.- Related fields of study...
and metabolism
Metabolism
Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories...
are some of the central phenomena in the study of biological organisms. The role of energy is fundamental to such biological process
Biological process
A biological process is a process of a living organism. Biological processes are made up of any number of chemical reactions or other events that results in a transformation....
es. The ability to harness energy from a variety of metabolic pathways is a property of all living organisms. Life
Life
Life is a characteristic that distinguishes objects that have signaling and self-sustaining processes from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased , or else because they lack such functions and are classified as inanimate...
is dependent on energy transformations; living organisms survive because of exchange of energy within and without.
In a living organism, chemical bond
Chemical bond
A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical substances that contain two or more atoms. The bond is caused by the electromagnetic force attraction between opposite charges, either between electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a dipole attraction...
s are broken and made as part of the exchange and transformation of energy. Energy is available for work (such as mechanical work) or for other processes (such as chemical synthesis and anabolic
Anabolism
Anabolism is the set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units. These reactions require energy. One way of categorizing metabolic processes, whether at the cellular, organ or organism level is as 'anabolic' or as 'catabolic', which is the opposite...
processes in growth), when weak bonds are broken and stronger bonds are made. The production of stronger bonds allows release of usable energy.
Living organisms obtain energy from organic and inorganic materials. For example, lithotroph
Lithotroph
A lithotroph is an organism that uses an inorganic substrate to obtain reducing equivalents for use in biosynthesis or energy conservation via aerobic or anaerobic respiration. Known chemolithotrophs are exclusively microbes; No known macrofauna possesses the ability to utilize inorganic...
s can oxidize minerals such as nitrate
Nitrate
The nitrate ion is a polyatomic ion with the molecular formula NO and a molecular mass of 62.0049 g/mol. It is the conjugate base of nitric acid, consisting of one central nitrogen atom surrounded by three identically-bonded oxygen atoms in a trigonal planar arrangement. The nitrate ion carries a...
s or forms of sulfur
Sulfur
Sulfur or sulphur is the chemical element with atomic number 16. In the periodic table it is represented by the symbol S. It is an abundant, multivalent non-metal. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with chemical formula S8. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow...
, such as elemental sulfur, sulfite
Sulfite
Sulfites are compounds that contain the sulfite ion SO. The sulfite ion is the conjugate base of bisulfite. Although the acid itself is elusive, its salts are widely used.-Structure:...
s, and hydrogen sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide is the chemical compound with the formula . It is a colorless, very poisonous, flammable gas with the characteristic foul odor of expired eggs perceptible at concentrations as low as 0.00047 parts per million...
to produce ATP. In photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can...
, autotroph
Autotroph
An autotroph, or producer, is an organism that produces complex organic compounds from simple inorganic molecules using energy from light or inorganic chemical reactions . They are the producers in a food chain, such as plants on land or algae in water...
s can produce ATP using light energy. Heterotroph
Heterotroph
A heterotroph is an organism that cannot fix carbon and uses organic carbon for growth. This contrasts with autotrophs, such as plants and algae, which can use energy from sunlight or inorganic compounds to produce organic compounds such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from inorganic carbon...
s must consume organic compounds. These are mostly carbohydrate
Carbohydrate
A carbohydrate is an organic compound with the empirical formula ; that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 . However, there are exceptions to this. One common example would be deoxyribose, a component of DNA, which has the empirical...
s, fat
Fat
Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and generally insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are triglycerides, triesters of glycerol and any of several fatty acids. Fats may be either solid or liquid at room temperature, depending on their structure...
s, and protein
Protein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s. The amount of energy actually obtained by the organism is lower than the amount present in the food; there are losses in digestion, metabolism, and thermogenesis
Thermogenesis
Thermogenesis is the process of heat production in organisms. It occurs mostly in warm-blooded animals, but a few species of thermogenic plants exist.-Types:...
.
The materials are generally combined with oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς and -γενής , because at the time of naming, it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition...
to release energy, although some can also be oxidized anaerobically by various organisms. The bonds holding the molecules of nutrient
Nutrient
A nutrient is a chemical that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment. They are used to build and repair tissues, regulate body processes and are converted to and used as energy...
s together and the bonds holding molecules of free oxygen together are all relatively weak compared with the chemical bonds holding carbon dioxide and water together. The utilization of these materials is a form of slow combustion
Combustion
Combustion or burning is the sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat and conversion of chemical species. The release of heat can result in the production of light in the form of either glowing or a flame...
. That is why the energy content of food can be estimated with a bomb calorimeter
Calorimeter
A calorimeter is a device used for calorimetry, the science of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes as well as heat capacity. Differential scanning calorimeters, isothermal microcalorimeters, titration calorimeters and accelerated rate calorimeters are among the most common...
. The materials are oxidized slowly enough that the organisms do not actually produce fire. The oxidation releases energy because stronger bonds have been formed. This net energy may evolve as heat, or some of which may be used by the organism for other purposes, such as breaking other bonds to do chemistry.
Living organisms produce ATP from energy sources via oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation is a metabolic pathway that uses energy released by the oxidation of nutrients to produce adenosine triphosphate . Although the many forms of life on earth use a range of different nutrients, almost all aerobic organisms carry out oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP,...
. The terminal phosphate bonds of ATP are relatively weak compared with the stronger bonds formed when ATP is broken down to adenosine monophosphate and phosphate, dissolved in water. Here it is the energy of hydration that results in energy release. This hydrolysis of ATP is used as a battery to store energy in cells, for intermediate metabolism. Utilization of chemical energy from such molecular bond rearrangement powers biological processes in every biological organism.
Types of reactions
- ExergonicExergonicExergonic means "releasing energy in the form of work". By thermodynamic standards, work, a form of energy, is defined as moving from the system to the surroundings...
is a spontaneous reaction that releases energy. It is thermodynamically favored. On the course of a reaction, energy needs to be put in, this activation energy drives the reactants from a stable state to a highly energetic unstable configuration. These reactants are usually complex molecules that are broken into simpler products. The entire reaction is usually catabolic. The release of energy, also called free energy is a - ΔG because energy is lost from the bonds formed by the products.
- EndergonicEndergonicEndergonic means "absorbing energy in the form of work." Endergonic reactions are not spontaneous...
is an anabolic reaction that consumes energy. It has a +ΔG because energy is required to break bonds.
The free energy (ΔG) gained or lost in a reaction can be calculated: ΔG = ΔH - T ΔS.
Also, ΔG = ΔG˚' + 2.303RT log([P]/[R]) where
-
- R is the gas constantGas constantThe gas constant is a physical constant which is featured in many fundamental equations in the physical sciences, such as the ideal gas law and the Nernst equation. It is equivalent to the Boltzmann constant, but expressed in units of energy The gas constant (also known as the molar, universal,...
, 1.987 cal/mol - T is temperature in kelvinKelvinThe kelvin is a unit of measurement for temperature. It is one of the seven base units in the International System of Units and is assigned the unit symbol K. The Kelvin scale is an absolute, thermodynamic temperature scale using as its null point absolute zero, the temperature at which all...
s K = 273 + ˚C - [P] is products
- [R] is the reactants
- R is the gas constant
Cotransport
In August 1960, Robert K. CraneRobert K. Crane
Robert Kellogg Crane is an American biochemist best known for his discovery of sodium-glucose cotransport.-Biography:...
presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport
Co-transport
Co-transport, also known as coupled transport or secondary active transport, refers to the simultaneous or sequential passive transfer of molecules or ions across biological membranes in a fixed ratio...
as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption. Crane's
Robert K. Crane
Robert Kellogg Crane is an American biochemist best known for his discovery of sodium-glucose cotransport.-Biography:...
discovery of cotransport
Co-transport
Co-transport, also known as coupled transport or secondary active transport, refers to the simultaneous or sequential passive transfer of molecules or ions across biological membranes in a fixed ratio...
was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology and was the most important event concerning carbohydrate absorption in the 20th century.
Chemiosmotic theory
One of the major triumphs of bioenergetics is Peter D. MitchellPeter D. Mitchell
Peter Dennis Mitchell, FRS was a British biochemist who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his discovery of the chemiosmotic mechanism of ATP synthesis.Mitchell was born in Mitcham, Surrey, England....
's chemiosmotic theory
Chemiosmosis
Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient. More specifically, it relates to the generation of ATP by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane during cellular respiration....
of how proton
Proton
The proton is a subatomic particle with the symbol or and a positive electric charge of 1 elementary charge. One or more protons are present in the nucleus of each atom, along with neutrons. The number of protons in each atom is its atomic number....
s in aqueous solution function in the production of ATP in cell organelle
Organelle
In cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is usually separately enclosed within its own lipid bilayer....
s such as mitochondria
Mitochondrion
In cell biology, a mitochondrion is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. These organelles range from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometers in diameter...
. Other cellular sources of ATP such as glycolysis
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+...
were understood first, but such processes for direct coupling of enzyme
Enzyme
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process, called substrates, are converted into different molecules, called products. Almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates...
activity to ATP production are not the major source of useful chemical energy in most cells. Chemiosmotic coupling is the major energy producing process in most cells, being utilized in chloroplast
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and other eukaryotic organisms that conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts capture light energy to conserve free energy in the form of ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH through a complex set of processes called photosynthesis.Chloroplasts are green...
s and several single celled
Three-domain system
The three-domain system is a biological classification introduced by Carl Woese in 1977 that divides cellular life forms into archaea, bacteria, and eukaryote domains. In particular, it emphasizes the separation of prokaryotes into two groups, originally called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria...
organisms in addition to mitochondria.
Energy balance
Energy balanceEnergy balance (biology)
In biology, energy balance is the biological homeostasis of energy in living systems. It is measured with the following equation: Energy intake = internal heat produced + external work + storage. It is also an aspect of bioenergetics, concerning energy flow through living systems.It generally uses...
is the biological homeostasis of energy
Energy
In physics, energy is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems...
in living systems. It is measured with the following equation:
Energy intake = internal heat produced + external work + storage.
See also
- Cellular respirationCellular respirationCellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate , and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions that involve...
- PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can...
- ATP synthaseATP synthaseright|thumb|300px|Molecular model of ATP synthase by X-ray diffraction methodATP synthase is an important enzyme that provides energy for the cell to use through the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate . ATP is the most commonly used "energy currency" of cells from most organisms...
- Active transportActive transportActive transport is the movement of a substance against its concentration gradient . In all cells, this is usually concerned with accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as ions, glucose, and amino acids. If the process uses chemical energy, such as from adenosine...
- MyosinMyosinMyosins comprise a family of ATP-dependent motor proteins and are best known for their role in muscle contraction and their involvement in a wide range of other eukaryotic motility processes. They are responsible for actin-based motility. The term was originally used to describe a group of similar...
External links
- The Molecular & Cellular Bioenergetics Gordon Research ConferenceGordon Research ConferencesGordon Research Conferences are international scientific conferences organized by a non-profit organization of the same name. The conference topics cover frontier research in the biological, chemical, and physical sciences, and their related technologies. The conferences have been held since...
(see). - American Society of Exercise PhysiologistsAmerican Society of Exercise PhysiologistsAmerican Society of Exercise Physiologists was founded in 1997 in Minnesota as a non-profit professional organization of exercise physiologists. The ASEP vision is to establish board certified exercise physiologists as experts in the application of "exercise as medicine" to benefit society...