Analytical mechanics
Encyclopedia
Analytical mechanics is a term used for a refined, mathematical form of classical mechanics
, constructed from the 18th century onwards as a formulation of the subject as founded by Isaac Newton
. Often the term vectorial mechanics is applied to the form based on Newton's work, to contrast it with analytical mechanics. This distinction makes sense because analytical mechanics uses two scalar properties of motion, the kinetic and potential energies, instead of vector forces, to analyze the motion.
The subject has two parts: Lagrangian mechanics
and Hamiltonian mechanics
. The Lagrangian formulation identifies the actual path followed by the motion as a selection of the path over which the time integral of kinetic energy
is least, assuming the total energy to be fixed, and imposing no conditions on the time of transit. The Hamiltonian formulation is more general, allowing time-varying energy, identifying the path followed to be the one with least action
(the integral over the path of the difference between kinetic and potential energies), holding the departure and arrival times fixed. These approaches underlie the path integral formulation
of quantum mechanics
.
It began with d'Alembert's principle
. By analogy with Fermat's principle
, which is the variational principle
in geometric optics, Maupertuis' principle
was discovered in classical mechanics.
Using generalized coordinates, we obtain Lagrange's equations. Using the Legendre transformation
, we obtain generalized momentum and the Hamiltonian
.
Hamilton's canonical equations provides integral
, while Lagrange's equation provides differential equations. Finally we may derive the Hamilton–Jacobi equation
.
The study of the solutions of the Hamilton-Jacobi equations leads naturally to the study of symplectic manifold
s and symplectic topology
. In this formulation, the solutions of the Hamilton–Jacobi equations are the integral curve
s of Hamiltonian vector field
s.
Classical mechanics
In physics, classical mechanics is one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces...
, constructed from the 18th century onwards as a formulation of the subject as founded by Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton PRS was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived."...
. Often the term vectorial mechanics is applied to the form based on Newton's work, to contrast it with analytical mechanics. This distinction makes sense because analytical mechanics uses two scalar properties of motion, the kinetic and potential energies, instead of vector forces, to analyze the motion.
The subject has two parts: Lagrangian mechanics
Lagrangian mechanics
Lagrangian mechanics is a re-formulation of classical mechanics that combines conservation of momentum with conservation of energy. It was introduced by the Italian-French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange in 1788....
and Hamiltonian mechanics
Hamiltonian mechanics
Hamiltonian mechanics is a reformulation of classical mechanics that was introduced in 1833 by Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton.It arose from Lagrangian mechanics, a previous reformulation of classical mechanics introduced by Joseph Louis Lagrange in 1788, but can be formulated without...
. The Lagrangian formulation identifies the actual path followed by the motion as a selection of the path over which the time integral of kinetic energy
Kinetic energy
The kinetic energy of an object is the energy which it possesses due to its motion.It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes...
is least, assuming the total energy to be fixed, and imposing no conditions on the time of transit. The Hamiltonian formulation is more general, allowing time-varying energy, identifying the path followed to be the one with least action
Principle of least action
In physics, the principle of least action – or, more accurately, the principle of stationary action – is a variational principle that, when applied to the action of a mechanical system, can be used to obtain the equations of motion for that system...
(the integral over the path of the difference between kinetic and potential energies), holding the departure and arrival times fixed. These approaches underlie the path integral formulation
Path integral formulation
The path integral formulation of quantum mechanics is a description of quantum theory which generalizes the action principle of classical mechanics...
of quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics, also known as quantum physics or quantum theory, is a branch of physics providing a mathematical description of much of the dual particle-like and wave-like behavior and interactions of energy and matter. It departs from classical mechanics primarily at the atomic and subatomic...
.
It began with d'Alembert's principle
D'Alembert's principle
D'Alembert's principle, also known as the Lagrange–d'Alembert principle, is a statement of the fundamental classical laws of motion. It is named after its discoverer, the French physicist and mathematician Jean le Rond d'Alembert...
. By analogy with Fermat's principle
Fermat's principle
In optics, Fermat's principle or the principle of least time is the principle that the path taken between two points by a ray of light is the path that can be traversed in the least time. This principle is sometimes taken as the definition of a ray of light...
, which is the variational principle
Variational principle
A variational principle is a scientific principle used within the calculus of variations, which develops general methods for finding functions which minimize or maximize the value of quantities that depend upon those functions...
in geometric optics, Maupertuis' principle
Maupertuis' principle
In classical mechanics, Maupertuis' principle is an integral equation that determines the path followed by a physical system without specifying the time parameterization of that path. It is a special case of the more generally stated principle of least action...
was discovered in classical mechanics.
Using generalized coordinates, we obtain Lagrange's equations. Using the Legendre transformation
Legendre transformation
In mathematics, the Legendre transformation or Legendre transform, named after Adrien-Marie Legendre, is an operation that transforms one real-valued function of a real variable into another...
, we obtain generalized momentum and the Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian mechanics
Hamiltonian mechanics is a reformulation of classical mechanics that was introduced in 1833 by Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton.It arose from Lagrangian mechanics, a previous reformulation of classical mechanics introduced by Joseph Louis Lagrange in 1788, but can be formulated without...
.
Hamilton's canonical equations provides integral
Integral equation
In mathematics, an integral equation is an equation in which an unknown function appears under an integral sign. There is a close connection between differential and integral equations, and some problems may be formulated either way...
, while Lagrange's equation provides differential equations. Finally we may derive the Hamilton–Jacobi equation
Hamilton–Jacobi equation
In mathematics, the Hamilton–Jacobi equation is a necessary condition describing extremal geometry in generalizations of problems from the calculus of variations. In physics, the Hamilton–Jacobi equation is a reformulation of classical mechanics and, thus, equivalent to other formulations such as...
.
The study of the solutions of the Hamilton-Jacobi equations leads naturally to the study of symplectic manifold
Symplectic manifold
In mathematics, a symplectic manifold is a smooth manifold, M, equipped with a closed nondegenerate differential 2-form, ω, called the symplectic form. The study of symplectic manifolds is called symplectic geometry or symplectic topology...
s and symplectic topology
Symplectic topology
Symplectic geometry is a branch of differential geometry and differential topology which studies symplectic manifolds; that is, differentiable manifolds equipped with a closed, nondegenerate 2-form...
. In this formulation, the solutions of the Hamilton–Jacobi equations are the integral curve
Integral curve
In mathematics, an integral curve is a parametric curve that represents a specific solution to an ordinary differential equation or system of equations...
s of Hamiltonian vector field
Hamiltonian vector field
In mathematics and physics, a Hamiltonian vector field on a symplectic manifold is a vector field, defined for any energy function or Hamiltonian. Named after the physicist and mathematician Sir William Rowan Hamilton, a Hamiltonian vector field is a geometric manifestation of Hamilton's equations...
s.
See also
- Action (physics)Action (physics)In physics, action is an attribute of the dynamics of a physical system. It is a mathematical functional which takes the trajectory, also called path or history, of the system as its argument and has a real number as its result. Action has the dimension of energy × time, and its unit is...
- Applied mechanicsApplied mechanicsApplied mechanics is a branch of the physical sciences and the practical application of mechanics. Applied mechanics examines the response of bodies or systems of bodies to external forces...
- Classical mechanicsClassical mechanicsIn physics, classical mechanics is one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces...
- DynamicsAnalytical dynamicsIn classical mechanics, analytical dynamics, or more briefly dynamics, is concerned about the relationship between motion of bodies and its causes, namely the forces acting on the bodies and the properties of the bodies...
- Hamilton–Jacobi equationHamilton–Jacobi equationIn mathematics, the Hamilton–Jacobi equation is a necessary condition describing extremal geometry in generalizations of problems from the calculus of variations. In physics, the Hamilton–Jacobi equation is a reformulation of classical mechanics and, thus, equivalent to other formulations such as...
- Hamilton's principleHamilton's principleIn physics, Hamilton's principle is William Rowan Hamilton's formulation of the principle of stationary action...
- KinematicsKinematicsKinematics is the branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of bodies and systems without consideration of the forces that cause the motion....
- Kinetics (physics)Kinetics (physics)In physics and engineering, kinetics is a term for the branch of classical mechanics that is concerned with the relationship between the motion of bodies and its causes, namely forces and torques...