Alexiad
Encyclopedia
The Alexiad is a medieval biographical text written around the year 1148 by the Byzantine historian Anna Comnena, daughter of Emperor Alexius I
.
Within the Alexiad, she describes the political and military history of the Byzantine Empire
during the reign of her father (1081-1118), making it one of the most important sources of information on the Byzantium
of the High Middle Ages
. As well as this, within the Alexiad, the First Crusade
's interaction with the Byzantine Empire is documented (despite being written nearly fifty years after the crusade), which highlights the conflicting perceptions of the East and West in the early 12th century.
The text was written in a form of artificial Attic Greek
, and it is one of only a few examples of a woman writing about the political and military history of her own country, and it is also a valuable source as to ascertain the Byzantine perception of the Crusaders.
and "Franks") whom she considers barbarians, the "barbarians" in general and the Armenians. She also fails to hide a deep hatred felt for her brother John II Komnenos
. However, all this does not prevent her from expressing admiration for the virtues, abilities or even charm of several enemies of the Empire (including lethal ones like Robert Guiscard
and his son Bohemund
). From a modern reader's point of view, the description of military events and the Empire's misfortunes may seem exaggerated and stereotypical (partially due to Homer
ic influences). There is also much confusion regarding the names and ranks of foreigners (particularly of Seljuk Turks) and a few geographical and dating errors.
The elaborate, if archaic, language she used and the impressive abundance of references to Homer's
Iliad
(in addition to those to Sophocles
, Euripides
and Demosthenes
) clearly show the high level of classical education of the author. In spite of this, the work does contain vivid fast-paced narration and digressions are relatively limited in length. Her use of military terms and the astonishing number of details in the description of the turbulent reign of Alexius suggests that, despite Anna's internment in a monastery, she had access to official archives and maybe interviewed eye-witnesses. They also suggest a very broad education. Her interest in military tactics and positive sciences, and the level of self-confidence in her writing abilities are surprising for a woman of that period (or even later). Successful character profiling is another positive side of her work as well as the sense of originality emanating from the dramatic lamentations about her ill fate.
Codex Florentinus 70,2
Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1438
Codex Barberinianus 235 & 236
Codex Ottobonianus Graecus 131 & 137
Codex Apographum Gronovii
Codex Vaticanus Graecus 981 (prologue and summary)
Codex Monacensis Graecus 355 (prologue and summary)
Codex Parisinus Graecus 400 (prologue and summary)
Alexios I Komnenos
Alexios I Komnenos, Latinized as Alexius I Comnenus , was Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118, and although he was not the founder of the Komnenian dynasty, it was during his reign that the Komnenos family came to full power. The title 'Nobilissimus' was given to senior army commanders,...
.
Within the Alexiad, she describes the political and military history of the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
during the reign of her father (1081-1118), making it one of the most important sources of information on the Byzantium
Byzantium
Byzantium was an ancient Greek city, founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 667 BC and named after their king Byzas . The name Byzantium is a Latinization of the original name Byzantion...
of the High Middle Ages
High Middle Ages
The High Middle Ages was the period of European history around the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries . The High Middle Ages were preceded by the Early Middle Ages and followed by the Late Middle Ages, which by convention end around 1500....
. As well as this, within the Alexiad, the First Crusade
First Crusade
The First Crusade was a military expedition by Western Christianity to regain the Holy Lands taken in the Muslim conquest of the Levant, ultimately resulting in the recapture of Jerusalem...
's interaction with the Byzantine Empire is documented (despite being written nearly fifty years after the crusade), which highlights the conflicting perceptions of the East and West in the early 12th century.
The text was written in a form of artificial Attic Greek
Attic Greek
Attic Greek is the prestige dialect of Ancient Greek that was spoken in Attica, which includes Athens. Of the ancient dialects, it is the most similar to later Greek, and is the standard form of the language studied in courses of "Ancient Greek". It is sometimes included in Ionic.- Origin and range...
, and it is one of only a few examples of a woman writing about the political and military history of her own country, and it is also a valuable source as to ascertain the Byzantine perception of the Crusaders.
Content
Due to the relationship between Anna and Alexius Ι, strong bias problems exist, despite Anna's frequent attempts to establish her objectiveness. Nevertheless, she manages to leave disguised traces of criticism of a father she deeply admires. She cannot hide her aversion to the Latins (NormansNormans
The Normans were the people who gave their name to Normandy, a region in northern France. They were descended from Norse Viking conquerors of the territory and the native population of Frankish and Gallo-Roman stock...
and "Franks") whom she considers barbarians, the "barbarians" in general and the Armenians. She also fails to hide a deep hatred felt for her brother John II Komnenos
John II Komnenos
John II Komnenos was Byzantine Emperor from 1118 to 1143. Also known as Kaloïōannēs , he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina...
. However, all this does not prevent her from expressing admiration for the virtues, abilities or even charm of several enemies of the Empire (including lethal ones like Robert Guiscard
Robert Guiscard
Robert d'Hauteville, known as Guiscard, Duke of Apulia and Calabria, from Latin Viscardus and Old French Viscart, often rendered the Resourceful, the Cunning, the Wily, the Fox, or the Weasel was a Norman adventurer conspicuous in the conquest of southern Italy and Sicily...
and his son Bohemund
Bohemund I of Antioch
Bohemond I , Prince of Taranto and Prince of Antioch, was one of the leaders of the First Crusade. The Crusade had no outright military leader, but instead was ruled by a committee of nobles...
). From a modern reader's point of view, the description of military events and the Empire's misfortunes may seem exaggerated and stereotypical (partially due to Homer
Homer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
ic influences). There is also much confusion regarding the names and ranks of foreigners (particularly of Seljuk Turks) and a few geographical and dating errors.
The elaborate, if archaic, language she used and the impressive abundance of references to Homer's
Homer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
Iliad
Iliad
The Iliad is an epic poem in dactylic hexameters, traditionally attributed to Homer. Set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Greek states, it tells of the battles and events during the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles...
(in addition to those to Sophocles
Sophocles
Sophocles is one of three ancient Greek tragedians whose plays have survived. His first plays were written later than those of Aeschylus, and earlier than or contemporary with those of Euripides...
, Euripides
Euripides
Euripides was one of the three great tragedians of classical Athens, the other two being Aeschylus and Sophocles. Some ancient scholars attributed ninety-five plays to him but according to the Suda it was ninety-two at most...
and Demosthenes
Demosthenes
Demosthenes was a prominent Greek statesman and orator of ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prowess and provide an insight into the politics and culture of ancient Greece during the 4th century BC. Demosthenes learned rhetoric by...
) clearly show the high level of classical education of the author. In spite of this, the work does contain vivid fast-paced narration and digressions are relatively limited in length. Her use of military terms and the astonishing number of details in the description of the turbulent reign of Alexius suggests that, despite Anna's internment in a monastery, she had access to official archives and maybe interviewed eye-witnesses. They also suggest a very broad education. Her interest in military tactics and positive sciences, and the level of self-confidence in her writing abilities are surprising for a woman of that period (or even later). Successful character profiling is another positive side of her work as well as the sense of originality emanating from the dramatic lamentations about her ill fate.
Structure of the work
The work is divided into the prologue and 15 books (book summaries below are, of course, modern interpretations).- Prologue The difficulties of writing history, reasons to write this work, mourning for her husband
- Book 1 : Alexius becomes general and Domestikos ton Scholon (Alexius youth — Urselius' revolt - Nicephorus Bryennios revolt — Normans prepare invasion)
- Book 2 : The Komnenian revolt (Envy against the family — Causes of uprising — The escape — Rebels proclaim Alexius as emperor - MelissenosNikephoros MelissenosNikephoros Melissenos , latinized as Nicephorus Melissenus, was a Byzantine general and aristocrat. Of distinguished lineage, he served as a governor and general in the Balkans and Asia Minor in the 1060s. In the turbulent period after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, several generals tried to...
revolts — Komnenians seize ConstantinopleConstantinopleConstantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
- Emperor Nikephoros III VotaneiatesNikephoros IIINikephoros III Botaneiates, Latinized as Nicephorus III Botaniates was Byzantine emperor from 1078 to 1081. He belonged to a family which claimed descent from the Byzantine Phokas family.- Early career :...
abdicates) - Book 3 : Alexius as Emperor (1081) and the internal problems with DoukasDoukasDoukas, latinized as Ducas , from the Latin tile dux , is the name of a Byzantine Greek noble family, whose branches provided several notable generals and rulers to the Byzantine Empire...
family (Maria of AlaniaMaria BagrationiEmpress Maria was a daughter of the Georgian king Bagrat IV of the Bagrationi and spouse of the Byzantine Emperor Michael VII Doukas and later also Nikephoros III Botaneiates...
and her son ConstantineConstantine DoukasConstantine Doukas or Ducas , was Byzantine co-emperor from c. 1074 to 1078 and from 1081 to 1087. He was the son of Emperor Michael VII Doukas and his Georgian wife Maria of Alania....
- Dismissal of her rumoured relationship with Alexius — About Alexius and his wife IreneIrene DoukainaIrene Doukaina or Ducaena was the wife of the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos, and the mother of the emperor John II Komnenos and of the historian Anna Komnene.-Succession of Alexios and Irene:...
- Alexius invents new ranks — Alexius publicly regrets for his soldiers crimes - Anna DalassenaAnna DalassenaAnna Dalassene was an important Byzantine noblewoman who played a significant role in the rise of the Komnenoi in the eleventh century. As Augusta, a title bestowed upon her rather than the empress by her son, Alexios I Komnenos, she guided the empire during his many absences for long military...
(Alexius mother) is given imperial authority — About Anna Dalassena — Alexius' military preparations and alliances — Turks spread in Asia MinorAsia MinorAsia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
- Normans cross Adriatic SeaAdriatic SeaThe Adriatic Sea is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan peninsula, and the system of the Apennine Mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges...
). - Book 4 : War against Normans (1081-1082) (Robert Guiscard besieges Dyrrhachium - Venetian allies defeat Normans — Alexius arrives with his army — Normans win the Battle of DyrrhachiumBattle of Dyrrhachium (1081)The Battle of Dyrrhachium took place on October 18, 1081 between the Byzantine Empire, led by the Emperor Alexius I Comnenus, and the Normans of southern Italy under Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia and Calabria...
, Alexius barely escapes) - Book 5 : War against Normans (1082-1083) and first clash with the heretics (Financial collapse — Seizure of church property — Bohemund against Alexius — Alexius finally wins with a strategem — Prosecution of John Italus)
- Book 6 : End of war against Normans (1085), death of Robert Guiscard, the Turks (Alexius recaptures KastoriaKastoriaKastoria is a city in northern Greece in the periphery of West Macedonia. It is the capital of Kastoria peripheral unit. It is situated on a promontory on the western shore of Lake Orestiada, in a valley surrounded by limestone mountains...
- Persecution of Manicheans (Paulicians)- Alexius in front of the Church Court — Conspiracy and revolt — The alliance with VeniceRepublic of VeniceThe Republic of Venice or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century until 1797. It was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in...
- Death of Guiscard — Persecution of wizards and astrologers — Births of porphyrogenitoiPorphyrogenitosPorphyrogénnētos, Latinized as Porphyrogenitus was an honorific title given to a son, or daughter , of a reigning emperor in the Byzantine Empire. However, not every imperial prince or princess was accorded this distinction...
- Alexius against the Turks - The Scythian threat (Pechenegs)) - Book 7 : War against the Scythians (1087-1090) (Beginning of hostilities - Crushing defeat of the imperial army - CumansCumansThe Cumans were Turkic nomadic people comprising the western branch of the Cuman-Kipchak confederation. After Mongol invasion , they decided to seek asylum in Hungary, and subsequently to Bulgaria...
defeat Scythians, truce - Scythians violate truce - Activity of Turkish pirate Tzachas in western Anatolia - Expedition against Scythians) - Book 8 : End of Scythian war (1091), plots against the Emperor (Hostilities continuing - Crushing of Scythians at LevuniumBattle of LevounionThe Battle of Levounion was the first decisive Byzantine victory of the Komnenian restoration. On April 29, 1091, an invading force of Pechenegs was heavily defeated by the combined forces of the Byzantine Empire under Alexios I Komnenos and his Cuman allies....
- Final success — Conspiracies and revolts) - Book 9 : Operations against Tzachas and Dalmatians (1092-1094), conspiracy of Nicephorus Diogenes (1094) (Operations against Tzachas — Operation in Crete and Cyprus — Elimination of Tzachas — Conspiracy of Nicephorus Diogenes — Capitulation of Dalmatians — Complementary to Diogenes)
- Book 10 : One more heresy, war against Cumans, Beginning of 1st Crusade (1094-1097) (Neilos and Vlahernites — War against Cumans - Operations against Turks - Arrival of the first Crusaders - Crushing of Crusaders under Koukoupetros (Peter the HermitPeter the HermitPeter the Hermit was a priest of Amiens and a key figure during the First Crusade.-Before 1096:According to Anna Comnena, he had attempted to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem before 1096, but was prevented by the Seljuk Turks from reaching his goal and was tortured.Sources differ as to whether he...
) - Hugh of France - Sea surveillance by the Romans - Godfrey of BouillonGodfrey of BouillonGodfrey of Bouillon was a medieval Frankish knight who was one of the leaders of the First Crusade from 1096 until his death. He was the Lord of Bouillon, from which he took his byname, from 1076 and the Duke of Lower Lorraine from 1087...
- Count Raul - Crusade leaders make homage to the Emperor - Bohemund) - Book 11 : 1st Crusade (1097-1104) (Crusaders besiege NicaeaIznikİznik is a city in Turkey which is primarily known as the site of the First and Second Councils of Nicaea, the first and seventh Ecumenical councils in the early history of the Church, the Nicene Creed, and as the capital city of the Empire of Nicaea...
- Liberation of Nicaea - Crusaders' successful operations - siege of AntiochSiege of AntiochThe Siege of Antioch took place during the First Crusade in 1097 and 1098. The first siege, by the crusaders against the Muslim city, lasted from October 21, 1097, to June 2, 1098. The second siege, against the crusaders who had occupied it, lasted from June 7 to June 28, 1098.-Background:Antioch...
- Successful Roman operations in Asia Minor - Capture of Antioch and Jerusalem - Operations in Asia - Massacre of Normans (LombardsLombardsThe Lombards , also referred to as Longobards, were a Germanic tribe of Scandinavian origin, who from 568 to 774 ruled a Kingdom in Italy...
) Crusaders by the Turks - Bohemund refuses to return Antioch to the Empire - Operations in CiliciaCiliciaIn antiquity, Cilicia was the south coastal region of Asia Minor, south of the central Anatolian plateau. It existed as a political entity from Hittite times into the Byzantine empire...
- Pisan fleet invades islands - Naval war with GenoansRepublic of GenoaThe Most Serene Republic of Genoa |Ligurian]]: Repúbrica de Zêna) was an independent state from 1005 to 1797 in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast, as well as Corsica from 1347 to 1768, and numerous other territories throughout the Mediterranean....
- Operations against Bohemund - Bohemund pretends to be dead) - Book 12 : Domestic conflicts, Norman preparations for the 2nd invasion (1105-1107) (Bohemond prepares landing to IllyriaIllyriaIn classical antiquity, Illyria was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by the Illyrians....
n coast - Operations of TancredTancred, Prince of GalileeTancred was a Norman leader of the First Crusade who later became Prince of Galilee and regent of the Principality of Antioch...
in Cilicia against the Empire - Queen Irene - Alexius organizes defense in the west - Conspiracy of Anemades — Georgios Taronites revolts in Trapezous — Isaacius Kontostefanos fails to guard the coast against Norman fleet — Beginning of Norman invasion) - Book 13 : Aaron's conspiracy, second Norman invasion (1107-1108) (Aaron's conspiracy — Siege of Dyrrhachium — Alexius tricks — Operations in mainland — Naval operations - Bohemund asks for peace — Peace negotiations - Bohemund's profile - Negotiations between Alexius and Bohemund - The Treaty of DevolTreaty of DevolThe Treaty of Devol was an agreement made in 1108 between Bohemond I of Antioch and Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos, in the wake of the First Crusade. It is named after the Byzantine fortress of Devol in Macedonia...
) - Book 14 : Turks, Franks, Cumans and Manicheans (1108-1115) (Roman successes against the Turks - Problems with the Franks - Naval and land operations - Emperor's health problems - Operations against the Turks - Anna speaks for her methods in writing history - Prevention of a Cuman raid - Alexius fights manichaeismManichaeismManichaeism in Modern Persian Āyin e Māni; ) was one of the major Iranian Gnostic religions, originating in Sassanid Persia.Although most of the original writings of the founding prophet Mani have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived...
by persuasion or persecution) - Book 15 : Last expeditions, the Bogomils, death of Alexius (1116-1118) (War against the Turks and the new battle tactics - Victorious battle - Peace with the Turks - Sultan is murdered by his brother - Alexius builds the Orphanage - Suppression of Bogomils, burning of their leader BasilBasil the PhysicianBasil the Physician was the Bogomil leader condemned as a heretic by Patriarch Nicholas III of Constantinople and burned at the stake by Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus....
- last illness and death of Alexius)
Complete manuscripts and summaries
Codex Coislinianus 311, in Fonds Coislin (Paris)Codex Florentinus 70,2
Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1438
Codex Barberinianus 235 & 236
Codex Ottobonianus Graecus 131 & 137
Codex Apographum Gronovii
Codex Vaticanus Graecus 981 (prologue and summary)
Codex Monacensis Graecus 355 (prologue and summary)
Codex Parisinus Graecus 400 (prologue and summary)
Published editions
- Penguin Classics paperback ISBN 0-14-044958-2
- Collection BudéCollection BudéThe Collection Budé, or the Collection des Universités de France, is a series of books comprising the Greek and Latin classics up to the middle of the 6th century...
(1937-45, 1967): Anne Comnene, Alexiade (Règne de l'Empereur Alexis I Comnène)