Aeterni Patris
Encyclopedia
Eighteen months into his pontificate, in August 1879, Pope
Leo XIII, formerly Joachim Pecci, cardinal
and bishop
of Perugia
, published the encyclical
Aeterni Patris (Of the Eternal Father). The aim of the encyclical was to aid and advance the restoration of Christian philosophy
, which had fallen into danger and disrepute by adhering to modern trends in secular philosophy
, by urging a return to the scholastic thinkers of the Middle Ages, most especially the “Angelic Doctor” St. Thomas Aquinas
. The encyclical attempts to clarify the roles of faith
and philosophy
, showing how most beneficially each may profit from the other. And according to the encyclical, the philosophy most conformable and useful for the faith is that of St. Thomas. The vigorous reintroduction of St. Thomas into the Catholic philosophical teaching was perceived by many as a bold and unprecedented step by the new pope. Indeed, since the French Revolution
, most pontiffs had preferred to condemn the errors in contemporary philosophy, not to recommend explicitly a return to the old. The encyclical, however, was no surprise to any acquainted with Cardinal Pecci, who had for years been spearheading a Thomistic renaissance in the schools in his diocese of Perugia. The interpretations and effects of the encyclical have been varied, some using it to authorize a return to a strict adherence to St. Thomas, others believing the document urges more a return to the spirit of Thomistic thinking. However various the effects may have been, the document has at least succeeded in reestablishing since its promulgation St. Thomas as a central figure in Catholic philosophy.
1. The opening paragraph begins with a reference to Christ’s
command to His Apostles to set all men free by teaching the truth of the faith to all nations (Matthew 28:19). The Church
was founded for this evangelical purpose, and popes, bishops, and councils
have defended the faith with the aim of preserving it from error. Although philosophy can and has deceived men about important matters, it is also capable of illuminating the other sciences. This, then, is the aim of Aeterni Patris: to promote the kind of philosophy that “shall respond most fitly to the excellence of faith, and at the same time [is] consonant with the dignity of human science.”
2. The errors of philosophy have caused problems in public and private life. Philosophy alone is insufficient to emerge from error or prevent further erroneous conclusions “concerning divine or human things.” The faith of the Christian religion preserves philosophic truth by bringing to men “the grace of the divine wisdom.” Neither reason
nor philosophy is destroyed by faith; God
, creator of “the light of reason in the human mind,” strengthens man and his reason by faith.
3. Pointing to the Church Fathers
, the encyclical shows how reason and science were used to call people to faith.
The Relationship between Philosophy and Faith: How Philosophy Aids Faith
4. In the fourth paragraph, the encyclical begins to articulate the ways in which philosophy can aid and complement true faith. Reason is characterized as a “steppingstone” to Christian faith, in that philosophy, when used rightly, fortifies the road to faith and prepares the soul for fit reception of revelation
. Reason is characterized as rather autonomous, in that the pagans
demonstrated and proved conclusions, using only their natural reason, which supported certain truths regarding faith: the existence of God
, his power and divinity, as well as the existence of a natural law
. A comparison is drawn between the way in which the Hebrews took with them Egyptian treasures to offer to the service of God, and the way in which truths discovered by the philosophy of the pagans are to be turned to the use and purposes of revealed doctrine.
5. The great and noble fruits gathered from natural reason, as described in the fifth paragraph, include its ability to recognize “that the doctrine of the Gospel
has even from its very beginning been made manifest by certain wonderful signs.” The spread, sanctity, and unity of the Church is another sign that reason can recognize.
6. The sixth paragraph draws attention to the fact that sacred theology
requires philosophy in order to be a genuine science: in order to assume the nature, form, and genius of a true science, theology requires the solid foundation of philosophy. Moreover, Philosophy complements theology in that true understanding and knowledge are better and more easily attained by those who join together philosophic studies with the love of faith and integrity of life.
7. Philosophy is characterized as both a defensive and offensive tool of faith. Defensively it protects the revealed truth from distortion; offensively it weakens arguments contrary to revealed truth. The examples of the Apostle Paul’s use of Greek philosophy
in Athens
(17:16–34) and David’s use of Goliath’s sword (Samuel 17:50–54) are given as literal and metaphorical examples of using philosophy in a defensive and offensive manner. The Church “commands” Christian teachers to enlist the help of philosophy in instructing the faithful but cautions against philosophical arguments that are contrary to revealed truth.
The Relationship between Philosophy and Faith: How Faith Aids Philosophy
8. Philosophy and revelation represent two realms of knowledge. Philosophy represents the profane realm of natural truth whereas revelation represents the divine realm of supernatural truth. Revelation or supernatural truth is beyond the reach of reason and therefore philosophy must accept these truths by faith. Philosophy is characterized as a handmaid to faith that humbly accepts revelation. Revelation has the “force of certain truth” so that what is contrary to faith is also contrary to reason. Thus, the philosopher is discouraged from accepting any conclusion that is opposed to revealed doctrine.
9. The human mind is limited and needs the truth of revelation to avoid error. Without the supernatural truth of revelation the human mind is subject to error and opinion. The fact that revelation assists the philosopher in reasoning correctly does not detract from the dignity of the human intellect because wisdom is gained in recognizing the limits of reason. “Faith frees and saves reason from error, and endows it with manifold knowledge.” Revelation serves as a lamp for the philosopher’s path toward truth.
The Relationship between Philosophy and Faith in Historical Perspective
10. The history of philosophy is marked by those who lacked “the gift of faith”—an error that led to doubtful claims about the nature of reality but especially divinity. However, Christ, “as the power and wisdom of God,” restores knowledge through his followers, and by their efforts redeems what is true in pagan philosophy. In doing so, Catholic doctrine was developed and defended against heretics
and other adversaries who sought to propose contrary views.
11. In combating these adversaries, Catholic apologists
even from the early centuries (for example, Justin Martyr
) encountered both the power of reason to demonstrate certain attributes of God and the limitation of reason in relationship to revelation.
12. The encyclical continues the list of those early Christian thinkers who have labored to defend the faith from error and develop a philosophically informed account of it: Quadratus
, Aristides, Hermias, Athenagoras
, Irenaeus
of Lyon
s, Clement of Alexandria
, Origen
, Tertullian
, amongst others, are listed.
13. In paragraph 13, Pope Leo XIII continues his list of those who have advanced the Christian intellectual tradition. He turns his attention first to St. Augustine
, who Leo says “[w]ould seem to have wrested the palm from all.” The genius of Augustine was his ability to combat “most vigorously all the errors of his age,” as well as his ability to lay down the “safe foundations and sure structure of human science.” The paragraph ends with mention of John Damascene
, Basil
, and Gregory of Nazianzen
as carrying the tradition in the East, and Boethius
and Anselm
in the West, all of whom Pope Leo says “[a]dded largely to the patrimony of philosophy.”
14. Paragraph 14 speaks of the “doctors of the middle ages,” the “Scholastics
,” whose contribution to the tradition was their “diligently collecting, and sifting, and storing up, as it were, in one place, for the use and convenience of posterity the rich and fertile harvests of Christian learning scattered abroad in the voluminous works of the holy Fathers.” Pope Leo XIII quotes Pope Sixtus V, who names in particular the “angelic St. Thomas and the seraphic St. Bonaventure” as preeminent doctors whose “surpassing genius” and “unwearied diligence” aided in further advancing the tradition.
15. The quotation from Sixtus V continues through paragraph 15, and it is here that scholasticism, drawing together and compiling the sacred writings, the work of the “sovereign Pontiffs, the holy Fathers and the councils,” is portrayed as beneficial to the posterity in three ways: for (1) understanding and interpreting Scripture, (2) understanding the Fathers, and (3) combating heresies and errors. The last way is highlighted in the paragraph for the particular importance it plays in “confirming the dogmas of Catholic faith and confuting heresies.”
16. In paragraph 16, the praise of scholastic theology is extended to the philosophy upon which it is based.
17. The following paragraph names Thomas Aquinas as the preeminent example of scholasticism. He is praised for collecting together all the other arguments of scholastics, and then made valuable additions as well. Apart from his contributions to theology, Thomas, the encyclical claims, also touched finely upon all points of philosophy.
18. In paragraph 18, Thomas is said to have triumphed over previous errors, and supplied those who follow him with the means to defeat other errors that would arise. Thomas also distinguished, “as is fitting,” faith from reason, without infringing upon the legitimate rights of either of them and instead strengthening each through the aid of the other.
The Authority of St. Thomas Aquinas
19. The nineteenth paragraph begins a discussion of the many ways in which Aquinas’s authority has been recognized through the centuries. The encyclical describes how many religious orders
mandated the study of his works to their members: the Dominicans, of course, but also the Benedictines, Carmelites
, Augustinians
, and Jesuits. This was done because St. Thomas reached such sound and defensible conclusions.
20. The twentieth paragraph of the encyclical refers to all the great universities of the scholastic period where Thomistic theology enjoyed prominence, creating harmony among all the schools adhering to his teaching.
21. The twenty-first paragraph of the encyclical continues the list of testimonials to St. Thomas’s greatness by mentioning some of the popes who have honored, borrowed from, and praised the work of St. Thomas.
22. Thomas Aquinas has long been held “in singular honor” in the ecumenical councils, including those of Lyons
, Vienne
, Florence
, and the Vatican
. This high regard was most especially evident during the Council of Trent, in which his Summa
was laid “upon the altar
, together with sacred Scripture and the decrees of the supreme Pontiffs
.”
23. Aquinas has been equally esteemed even among critics of the Church, “who openly declared that, if the teaching of Thomas Aquinas were only taken away, they could easily battle with all Catholic teachers.”
24. The “struggling innovators of the sixteenth century” philosophized without regard for faith. Their inventions were in accordance with their own whims, and so, naturally, there arose a great diversity of philosophies, “differing and clashing” even in those matters of human knowledge that are most important. Pope Leo fears that many philosophers were forsaking the solid philosophical foundation of antiquity and turning toward “a foundation open to change.” And another danger: while Leo affirms the important work of scholarship, he cautions that philosophical pursuits should not be characterized by “mere erudition
”; what is required, rather, is an authentic development of learning.
The Need for a Thomistic and Scholastic Renaissance
25. Paragraph 25, which acknowledges that, in the face of these dangers, some already have already returned to the superior philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas, is followed by the hortatory and encouraging remarks in paragraph 26.
26. Both paragraphs use ornamental language in speaking of the “beauty” of the “pure streams” from the “precious fountainhead of the Angelic Doctor.” The language may appeal implicitly to a Thomistic understanding of Beauty as a transcendental quality inseparable from the Good and the Truth.
27. The encyclical goes on in paragraph 27 to urge the teaching of scholastic philosophy and theology, especially to the young seminarians
“who are the growing hope of the Church.” Scholastic thought is likened to a strong weapon with which one may best defend the Catholic faith against the assault waged against her by the “machinations and craft of a certain false wisdom.” Scholastic philosophy is presented as second only to the “supernatural help of God,” in its ability to defend the faith.
28. The restoring of the teachings of Thomas Aquinas in the universities and the strong foundation this will offer the students will also help society as a whole by offering it a “more peaceful and secure existence,” as well as protecting it from the “plague of perverse opinions.”
29. Scholastic philosophy, with its “sound judgment,” “right method,” and “spirit,” will strengthen and guide all the different disciplines, including the liberal arts
and the physical sciences.
30. In particular, scholastic philosophy does not oppose the “advance and development of natural science.” On the contrary, philosophy is in accord with the conclusions of modern physics
. This accord is exemplified by the openness of Aquinas and Albertus Magnus
, among other scholastics, to giving “large attention to the knowledge of natural things.”
31. This paragraph emphasizes that the revival of scholasticism and, in particular, Thomism for which the encyclical calls is not a recommendation to practice a slavish adherence to outdated doctrines and ideas: “if there is anything that ill agrees with the discoveries of a later age … it does not enter Our mind to propose that for imitation in Our age.” It is crucial, as well, that Aquinas’s own writings be read and studied, rather than derivative works that may already be affected by errors.
Conclusion
32.–34. The document ends with an invocation of God’s grace and the blessing of the saints, for the important work that is recommended in the encyclical.
The chief aim of Aeterni Patris was the reintroduction of Thomism into Catholic educational centers for the purpose of bringing faith and reason back into a fruitful dialectic
. Pope Leo XIII had recognized the detrimental effects to both society and religion when reason is privileged over faith. In an effort to promote Thomistic scholarship, Pope Leo XIII commissioned a critical edition of Aquinas’s works, referred to as the “Leonine” edition. Although Thomism had already enjoyed a half-century revival before 1879 through the writings of scholars such as Carlo Maria Curci
(d. 1891), Giovanni Maria Cornoldi
(d. 1892), and Tommaso Zigliara
(d. 1893), Aeterni Patris heralded a renaissance of Thomism that still reverberates in modern theological and philosophical discourse.
Jesuit theologians such as Joseph Maréchal
(1878–1944), Karl Rahner
(1904–1984), and Bernard J. F. Lonergan
(1904–1984) developed a post-Kantian Thomism sometimes called “Transcendental Thomism.” The French theologians Charles Journet
(1891–1975), Jacques Maritain
(1882–1973), and Étienne Gilson
(1884–1978) contributed significantly to Thomistic methodology. Journet along with Maritain founded the journal Nova et Vetera
and contributed to sessions at Vatican II. Gilson founded the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies
in Toronto
, Ontario
. Gilson’s Being and Some Philosophers (1949) and Maritain’s The Degrees of Knowledge (1932) are still widely popular among students of Thomism. Together, Gilson and Matitain are sometimes called "existential Thomists."
French Dominicans Pierre Mandonnet
(1858–1936), Marie-Dominique Chenu
(1895–1990), and Yves Congar
(1904–1995) explored the historical background of Thomas Aquinas and its relationship to theology. One of the best known French Dominicans of the twentieth century was Réginald Garrigou-Lagrange
(1877–1964), who influenced generations of students during his tenure at the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas in Rome
. These developments and contributions can be seen as a natural consequence of the aim of Aeterni Patris to bring faith and reason together in a fruitful dialectic. The spirit and thought of Saint Thomas Aquinas advocated by the encyclical has proven a valuable resource for Catholic philosophy and theology in bringing both faith and reason to bear on the problems of modern life.
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
Leo XIII, formerly Joachim Pecci, cardinal
Cardinal (Catholicism)
A cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical official, usually an ordained bishop, and ecclesiastical prince of the Catholic Church. They are collectively known as the College of Cardinals, which as a body elects a new pope. The duties of the cardinals include attending the meetings of the College and...
and bishop
Bishop (Catholic Church)
In the Catholic Church, a bishop is an ordained minister who holds the fullness of the sacrament of Holy Orders and is responsible for teaching the Catholic faith and ruling the Church....
of Perugia
Perugia
Perugia is the capital city of the region of Umbria in central Italy, near the River Tiber, and the capital of the province of Perugia. The city is located about north of Rome. It covers a high hilltop and part of the valleys around the area....
, published the encyclical
Encyclical
An encyclical was originally a circular letter sent to all the churches of a particular area in the ancient Catholic Church. At that time, the word could be used for a letter sent out by any bishop...
Aeterni Patris (Of the Eternal Father). The aim of the encyclical was to aid and advance the restoration of Christian philosophy
Christian philosophy
Christian philosophy may refer to any development in philosophy that is characterised by coming from a Christian tradition.- Origins of Christian philosophy :...
, which had fallen into danger and disrepute by adhering to modern trends in secular philosophy
Modernism (Roman Catholicism)
Modernism refers to theological opinions expressed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but with influence reaching into the 21st century, which are characterized by a break with the past. Catholic modernists form an amorphous group. The term "modernist" appears in Pope Pius X's 1907...
, by urging a return to the scholastic thinkers of the Middle Ages, most especially the “Angelic Doctor” St. Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas, O.P. , also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino, was an Italian Dominican priest of the Catholic Church, and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, known as Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Communis, or Doctor Universalis...
. The encyclical attempts to clarify the roles of faith
Faith
Faith is confidence or trust in a person or thing, or a belief that is not based on proof. In religion, faith is a belief in a transcendent reality, a religious teacher, a set of teachings or a Supreme Being. Generally speaking, it is offered as a means by which the truth of the proposition,...
and philosophy
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
, showing how most beneficially each may profit from the other. And according to the encyclical, the philosophy most conformable and useful for the faith is that of St. Thomas. The vigorous reintroduction of St. Thomas into the Catholic philosophical teaching was perceived by many as a bold and unprecedented step by the new pope. Indeed, since the French Revolution
French Revolution
The French Revolution , sometimes distinguished as the 'Great French Revolution' , was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France and Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years...
, most pontiffs had preferred to condemn the errors in contemporary philosophy, not to recommend explicitly a return to the old. The encyclical, however, was no surprise to any acquainted with Cardinal Pecci, who had for years been spearheading a Thomistic renaissance in the schools in his diocese of Perugia. The interpretations and effects of the encyclical have been varied, some using it to authorize a return to a strict adherence to St. Thomas, others believing the document urges more a return to the spirit of Thomistic thinking. However various the effects may have been, the document has at least succeeded in reestablishing since its promulgation St. Thomas as a central figure in Catholic philosophy.
An overview of the document’s main points
Introduction1. The opening paragraph begins with a reference to Christ’s
Jesus
Jesus of Nazareth , commonly referred to as Jesus Christ or simply as Jesus or Christ, is the central figure of Christianity...
command to His Apostles to set all men free by teaching the truth of the faith to all nations (Matthew 28:19). The Church
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
was founded for this evangelical purpose, and popes, bishops, and councils
Catholic Ecumenical Councils
Catholic Ecumenical Councils include 21 councils over a period of 1700 years. While definitions changed throughout history, in today's understanding Ecumenical Councils are assemblies of Patriarchs, Cardinals, residing Bishops, Abbots, male heads of religious orders and other juridical persons, ...
have defended the faith with the aim of preserving it from error. Although philosophy can and has deceived men about important matters, it is also capable of illuminating the other sciences. This, then, is the aim of Aeterni Patris: to promote the kind of philosophy that “shall respond most fitly to the excellence of faith, and at the same time [is] consonant with the dignity of human science.”
2. The errors of philosophy have caused problems in public and private life. Philosophy alone is insufficient to emerge from error or prevent further erroneous conclusions “concerning divine or human things.” The faith of the Christian religion preserves philosophic truth by bringing to men “the grace of the divine wisdom.” Neither reason
Reason
Reason is a term that refers to the capacity human beings have to make sense of things, to establish and verify facts, and to change or justify practices, institutions, and beliefs. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, language, ...
nor philosophy is destroyed by faith; God
God
God is the English name given to a singular being in theistic and deistic religions who is either the sole deity in monotheism, or a single deity in polytheism....
, creator of “the light of reason in the human mind,” strengthens man and his reason by faith.
3. Pointing to the Church Fathers
Church Fathers
The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were early and influential theologians, eminent Christian teachers and great bishops. Their scholarly works were used as a precedent for centuries to come...
, the encyclical shows how reason and science were used to call people to faith.
The Relationship between Philosophy and Faith: How Philosophy Aids Faith
4. In the fourth paragraph, the encyclical begins to articulate the ways in which philosophy can aid and complement true faith. Reason is characterized as a “steppingstone” to Christian faith, in that philosophy, when used rightly, fortifies the road to faith and prepares the soul for fit reception of revelation
Revelation
In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing, through active or passive communication with a supernatural or a divine entity...
. Reason is characterized as rather autonomous, in that the pagans
Ancient philosophy
This page lists some links to ancient philosophy. In Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity through the Roman Empire marked the ending of Hellenistic philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of Medieval philosophy, whereas in Eastern philosophy, the spread of Islam through the Arab Empire...
demonstrated and proved conclusions, using only their natural reason, which supported certain truths regarding faith: the existence of God
Existence of God
Arguments for and against the existence of God have been proposed by philosophers, theologians, scientists, and others. In philosophical terms, arguments for and against the existence of God involve primarily the sub-disciplines of epistemology and ontology , but also of the theory of value, since...
, his power and divinity, as well as the existence of a natural law
Natural law
Natural law, or the law of nature , is any system of law which is purportedly determined by nature, and thus universal. Classically, natural law refers to the use of reason to analyze human nature and deduce binding rules of moral behavior. Natural law is contrasted with the positive law Natural...
. A comparison is drawn between the way in which the Hebrews took with them Egyptian treasures to offer to the service of God, and the way in which truths discovered by the philosophy of the pagans are to be turned to the use and purposes of revealed doctrine.
5. The great and noble fruits gathered from natural reason, as described in the fifth paragraph, include its ability to recognize “that the doctrine of the Gospel
Gospel
A gospel is an account, often written, that describes the life of Jesus of Nazareth. In a more general sense the term "gospel" may refer to the good news message of the New Testament. It is primarily used in reference to the four canonical gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John...
has even from its very beginning been made manifest by certain wonderful signs.” The spread, sanctity, and unity of the Church is another sign that reason can recognize.
6. The sixth paragraph draws attention to the fact that sacred theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
requires philosophy in order to be a genuine science: in order to assume the nature, form, and genius of a true science, theology requires the solid foundation of philosophy. Moreover, Philosophy complements theology in that true understanding and knowledge are better and more easily attained by those who join together philosophic studies with the love of faith and integrity of life.
7. Philosophy is characterized as both a defensive and offensive tool of faith. Defensively it protects the revealed truth from distortion; offensively it weakens arguments contrary to revealed truth. The examples of the Apostle Paul’s use of Greek philosophy
Hellenistic philosophy
Hellenistic philosophy is the period of Western philosophy that was developed in the Hellenistic civilization following Aristotle and ending with the beginning of Neoplatonism.-Pythagoreanism:...
in Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
(17:16–34) and David’s use of Goliath’s sword (Samuel 17:50–54) are given as literal and metaphorical examples of using philosophy in a defensive and offensive manner. The Church “commands” Christian teachers to enlist the help of philosophy in instructing the faithful but cautions against philosophical arguments that are contrary to revealed truth.
The Relationship between Philosophy and Faith: How Faith Aids Philosophy
8. Philosophy and revelation represent two realms of knowledge. Philosophy represents the profane realm of natural truth whereas revelation represents the divine realm of supernatural truth. Revelation or supernatural truth is beyond the reach of reason and therefore philosophy must accept these truths by faith. Philosophy is characterized as a handmaid to faith that humbly accepts revelation. Revelation has the “force of certain truth” so that what is contrary to faith is also contrary to reason. Thus, the philosopher is discouraged from accepting any conclusion that is opposed to revealed doctrine.
9. The human mind is limited and needs the truth of revelation to avoid error. Without the supernatural truth of revelation the human mind is subject to error and opinion. The fact that revelation assists the philosopher in reasoning correctly does not detract from the dignity of the human intellect because wisdom is gained in recognizing the limits of reason. “Faith frees and saves reason from error, and endows it with manifold knowledge.” Revelation serves as a lamp for the philosopher’s path toward truth.
The Relationship between Philosophy and Faith in Historical Perspective
10. The history of philosophy is marked by those who lacked “the gift of faith”—an error that led to doubtful claims about the nature of reality but especially divinity. However, Christ, “as the power and wisdom of God,” restores knowledge through his followers, and by their efforts redeems what is true in pagan philosophy. In doing so, Catholic doctrine was developed and defended against heretics
Heresy
Heresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
and other adversaries who sought to propose contrary views.
11. In combating these adversaries, Catholic apologists
Apologetics
Apologetics is the discipline of defending a position through the systematic use of reason. Early Christian writers Apologetics (from Greek ἀπολογία, "speaking in defense") is the discipline of defending a position (often religious) through the systematic use of reason. Early Christian writers...
even from the early centuries (for example, Justin Martyr
Justin Martyr
Justin Martyr, also known as just Saint Justin , was an early Christian apologist. Most of his works are lost, but two apologies and a dialogue survive. He is considered a saint by the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church....
) encountered both the power of reason to demonstrate certain attributes of God and the limitation of reason in relationship to revelation.
12. The encyclical continues the list of those early Christian thinkers who have labored to defend the faith from error and develop a philosophically informed account of it: Quadratus
Quadratus of Athens
Saint Quadratus of Athens is said to have been the first of the Christian apologists. He is said by Eusebius of Caesarea to have been a disciple of the Apostles...
, Aristides, Hermias, Athenagoras
Athenagoras of Athens
Athenagoras was a Father of the Church, a Proto-orthodox Christian apologist who lived during the second half of the 2nd century of whom little is known for certain, besides that he was Athenian , a philosopher, and a convert to Christianity. In his writings he styles himself as "Athenagoras, the...
, Irenaeus
Irenaeus
Saint Irenaeus , was Bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, then a part of the Roman Empire . He was an early church father and apologist, and his writings were formative in the early development of Christian theology...
of Lyon
Lyon
Lyon , is a city in east-central France in the Rhône-Alpes region, situated between Paris and Marseille. Lyon is located at from Paris, from Marseille, from Geneva, from Turin, and from Barcelona. The residents of the city are called Lyonnais....
s, Clement of Alexandria
Clement of Alexandria
Titus Flavius Clemens , known as Clement of Alexandria , was a Christian theologian and the head of the noted Catechetical School of Alexandria. Clement is best remembered as the teacher of Origen...
, Origen
Origen
Origen , or Origen Adamantius, 184/5–253/4, was an early Christian Alexandrian scholar and theologian, and one of the most distinguished writers of the early Church. As early as the fourth century, his orthodoxy was suspect, in part because he believed in the pre-existence of souls...
, Tertullian
Tertullian
Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian , was a prolific early Christian author from Carthage in the Roman province of Africa. He is the first Christian author to produce an extensive corpus of Latin Christian literature. He also was a notable early Christian apologist and...
, amongst others, are listed.
13. In paragraph 13, Pope Leo XIII continues his list of those who have advanced the Christian intellectual tradition. He turns his attention first to St. Augustine
Augustine of Hippo
Augustine of Hippo , also known as Augustine, St. Augustine, St. Austin, St. Augoustinos, Blessed Augustine, or St. Augustine the Blessed, was Bishop of Hippo Regius . He was a Latin-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman Africa Province...
, who Leo says “[w]ould seem to have wrested the palm from all.” The genius of Augustine was his ability to combat “most vigorously all the errors of his age,” as well as his ability to lay down the “safe foundations and sure structure of human science.” The paragraph ends with mention of John Damascene
John of Damascus
Saint John of Damascus was a Syrian monk and priest...
, Basil
Basil of Caesarea
Basil of Caesarea, also called Saint Basil the Great, was the bishop of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia, Asia Minor . He was an influential 4th century Christian theologian...
, and Gregory of Nazianzen
Gregory of Nazianzus
Gregory of Nazianzus was a 4th-century Archbishop of Constantinople. He is widely considered the most accomplished rhetorical stylist of the patristic age...
as carrying the tradition in the East, and Boethius
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius, commonly called Boethius was a philosopher of the early 6th century. He was born in Rome to an ancient and important family which included emperors Petronius Maximus and Olybrius and many consuls. His father, Flavius Manlius Boethius, was consul in 487 after...
and Anselm
Anselm of Canterbury
Anselm of Canterbury , also called of Aosta for his birthplace, and of Bec for his home monastery, was a Benedictine monk, a philosopher, and a prelate of the church who held the office of Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109...
in the West, all of whom Pope Leo says “[a]dded largely to the patrimony of philosophy.”
14. Paragraph 14 speaks of the “doctors of the middle ages,” the “Scholastics
Scholasticism
Scholasticism is a method of critical thought which dominated teaching by the academics of medieval universities in Europe from about 1100–1500, and a program of employing that method in articulating and defending orthodoxy in an increasingly pluralistic context...
,” whose contribution to the tradition was their “diligently collecting, and sifting, and storing up, as it were, in one place, for the use and convenience of posterity the rich and fertile harvests of Christian learning scattered abroad in the voluminous works of the holy Fathers.” Pope Leo XIII quotes Pope Sixtus V, who names in particular the “angelic St. Thomas and the seraphic St. Bonaventure” as preeminent doctors whose “surpassing genius” and “unwearied diligence” aided in further advancing the tradition.
15. The quotation from Sixtus V continues through paragraph 15, and it is here that scholasticism, drawing together and compiling the sacred writings, the work of the “sovereign Pontiffs, the holy Fathers and the councils,” is portrayed as beneficial to the posterity in three ways: for (1) understanding and interpreting Scripture, (2) understanding the Fathers, and (3) combating heresies and errors. The last way is highlighted in the paragraph for the particular importance it plays in “confirming the dogmas of Catholic faith and confuting heresies.”
16. In paragraph 16, the praise of scholastic theology is extended to the philosophy upon which it is based.
17. The following paragraph names Thomas Aquinas as the preeminent example of scholasticism. He is praised for collecting together all the other arguments of scholastics, and then made valuable additions as well. Apart from his contributions to theology, Thomas, the encyclical claims, also touched finely upon all points of philosophy.
18. In paragraph 18, Thomas is said to have triumphed over previous errors, and supplied those who follow him with the means to defeat other errors that would arise. Thomas also distinguished, “as is fitting,” faith from reason, without infringing upon the legitimate rights of either of them and instead strengthening each through the aid of the other.
The Authority of St. Thomas Aquinas
19. The nineteenth paragraph begins a discussion of the many ways in which Aquinas’s authority has been recognized through the centuries. The encyclical describes how many religious orders
Roman Catholic religious order
Catholic religious orders are, historically, a category of Catholic religious institutes.Subcategories are canons regular ; monastics ; mendicants Catholic religious orders are, historically, a category of Catholic religious institutes.Subcategories are canons regular (canons and canonesses regular...
mandated the study of his works to their members: the Dominicans, of course, but also the Benedictines, Carmelites
Carmelites
The Order of the Brothers of Our Lady of Mount Carmel or Carmelites is a Catholic religious order perhaps founded in the 12th century on Mount Carmel, hence its name. However, historical records about its origin remain uncertain...
, Augustinians
Augustinians
The term Augustinians, named after Saint Augustine of Hippo , applies to two separate and unrelated types of Catholic religious orders:...
, and Jesuits. This was done because St. Thomas reached such sound and defensible conclusions.
20. The twentieth paragraph of the encyclical refers to all the great universities of the scholastic period where Thomistic theology enjoyed prominence, creating harmony among all the schools adhering to his teaching.
21. The twenty-first paragraph of the encyclical continues the list of testimonials to St. Thomas’s greatness by mentioning some of the popes who have honored, borrowed from, and praised the work of St. Thomas.
22. Thomas Aquinas has long been held “in singular honor” in the ecumenical councils, including those of Lyons
Second Council of Lyon
The Second Council of Lyon was the fourteenth ecumenical council of the Catholic Church, convoked on 31 March 1272 and convened in Lyon, France, in 1274. Pope Gregory X presided over the council, called to act on a pledge by Byzantine emperor Michael VIII to reunite the Eastern church with the West...
, Vienne
Council of Vienne
The Council of Vienne was the fifteenth Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church that met between 1311 and 1312 in Vienne. Its principal act was to withdraw papal support for the Knights Templar on the instigation of Philip IV of France.-Background:...
, Florence
Council of Florence
The Council of Florence was an Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. It began in 1431 in Basel, Switzerland, and became known as the Council of Ferrara after its transfer to Ferrara was decreed by Pope Eugene IV, to convene in 1438...
, and the Vatican
First Vatican Council
The First Vatican Council was convoked by Pope Pius IX on 29 June 1868, after a period of planning and preparation that began on 6 December 1864. This twentieth ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, held three centuries after the Council of Trent, opened on 8 December 1869 and adjourned...
. This high regard was most especially evident during the Council of Trent, in which his Summa
Summa Theologica
The Summa Theologiæ is the best-known work of Thomas Aquinas , and although unfinished, "one of the classics of the history of philosophy and one of the most influential works of Western literature." It is intended as a manual for beginners in theology and a compendium of all of the main...
was laid “upon the altar
Altar (Catholicism)
In the liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church, the altar is where the Sacrifice of the Mass is offered. Mass may sometimes be celebrated outside a sacred place, but never without an altar, or at least an altar stone.-Precedent:...
, together with sacred Scripture and the decrees of the supreme Pontiffs
Papal bull
A Papal bull is a particular type of letters patent or charter issued by a Pope of the Catholic Church. It is named after the bulla that was appended to the end in order to authenticate it....
.”
23. Aquinas has been equally esteemed even among critics of the Church, “who openly declared that, if the teaching of Thomas Aquinas were only taken away, they could easily battle with all Catholic teachers.”
24. The “struggling innovators of the sixteenth century” philosophized without regard for faith. Their inventions were in accordance with their own whims, and so, naturally, there arose a great diversity of philosophies, “differing and clashing” even in those matters of human knowledge that are most important. Pope Leo fears that many philosophers were forsaking the solid philosophical foundation of antiquity and turning toward “a foundation open to change.” And another danger: while Leo affirms the important work of scholarship, he cautions that philosophical pursuits should not be characterized by “mere erudition
Erudition
The word erudition came into Middle English from Latin. A scholar is erudite when instruction and reading followed by digestion and contemplation have effaced all rudeness , that is to say smoothed away all raw, untrained incivility...
”; what is required, rather, is an authentic development of learning.
The Need for a Thomistic and Scholastic Renaissance
25. Paragraph 25, which acknowledges that, in the face of these dangers, some already have already returned to the superior philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas, is followed by the hortatory and encouraging remarks in paragraph 26.
26. Both paragraphs use ornamental language in speaking of the “beauty” of the “pure streams” from the “precious fountainhead of the Angelic Doctor.” The language may appeal implicitly to a Thomistic understanding of Beauty as a transcendental quality inseparable from the Good and the Truth.
27. The encyclical goes on in paragraph 27 to urge the teaching of scholastic philosophy and theology, especially to the young seminarians
Seminary
A seminary, theological college, or divinity school is an institution of secondary or post-secondary education for educating students in theology, generally to prepare them for ordination as clergy or for other ministry...
“who are the growing hope of the Church.” Scholastic thought is likened to a strong weapon with which one may best defend the Catholic faith against the assault waged against her by the “machinations and craft of a certain false wisdom.” Scholastic philosophy is presented as second only to the “supernatural help of God,” in its ability to defend the faith.
28. The restoring of the teachings of Thomas Aquinas in the universities and the strong foundation this will offer the students will also help society as a whole by offering it a “more peaceful and secure existence,” as well as protecting it from the “plague of perverse opinions.”
29. Scholastic philosophy, with its “sound judgment,” “right method,” and “spirit,” will strengthen and guide all the different disciplines, including the liberal arts
Liberal arts
The term liberal arts refers to those subjects which in classical antiquity were considered essential for a free citizen to study. Grammar, Rhetoric and Logic were the core liberal arts. In medieval times these subjects were extended to include mathematics, geometry, music and astronomy...
and the physical sciences.
30. In particular, scholastic philosophy does not oppose the “advance and development of natural science.” On the contrary, philosophy is in accord with the conclusions of modern physics
History of physics
As forms of science historically developed out of philosophy, physics was originally referred to as natural philosophy, a term describing a field of study concerned with "the workings of nature".-Early history:...
. This accord is exemplified by the openness of Aquinas and Albertus Magnus
Albertus Magnus
Albertus Magnus, O.P. , also known as Albert the Great and Albert of Cologne, is a Catholic saint. He was a German Dominican friar and a bishop, who achieved fame for his comprehensive knowledge of and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science and religion. Those such as James A. Weisheipl...
, among other scholastics, to giving “large attention to the knowledge of natural things.”
31. This paragraph emphasizes that the revival of scholasticism and, in particular, Thomism for which the encyclical calls is not a recommendation to practice a slavish adherence to outdated doctrines and ideas: “if there is anything that ill agrees with the discoveries of a later age … it does not enter Our mind to propose that for imitation in Our age.” It is crucial, as well, that Aquinas’s own writings be read and studied, rather than derivative works that may already be affected by errors.
Conclusion
32.–34. The document ends with an invocation of God’s grace and the blessing of the saints, for the important work that is recommended in the encyclical.
Effects of the encyclical
Dialectic
Dialectic is a method of argument for resolving disagreement that has been central to Indic and European philosophy since antiquity. The word dialectic originated in Ancient Greece, and was made popular by Plato in the Socratic dialogues...
. Pope Leo XIII had recognized the detrimental effects to both society and religion when reason is privileged over faith. In an effort to promote Thomistic scholarship, Pope Leo XIII commissioned a critical edition of Aquinas’s works, referred to as the “Leonine” edition. Although Thomism had already enjoyed a half-century revival before 1879 through the writings of scholars such as Carlo Maria Curci
Carlo Maria Curci
Carlo Maria Curci was an Italian theologian from Naples.He joined the Society of Jesus in 1826, and was devoted to the education and care of the poor and prisoners. Curci became one of the first editors of the Jesuit periodical, La Civiltà Cattolica...
(d. 1891), Giovanni Maria Cornoldi
Giovanni Maria Cornoldi
Giovanni Maria Cornoldi was an Italian Jesuit academic, author, and preacher.-Life:Born at Venice, he entered the Society of Jesus in 1840 and taught philosophy at Brixen and Padua for many years...
(d. 1892), and Tommaso Zigliara
Tommaso Maria Zigliara
Tommaso Maria Zigliara was a Roman Catholic cardinal, theologian, and philosopher.-Life:...
(d. 1893), Aeterni Patris heralded a renaissance of Thomism that still reverberates in modern theological and philosophical discourse.
Jesuit theologians such as Joseph Maréchal
Joseph Maréchal
Joseph Maréchal was a Belgian Jesuit priest, philosopher and psychologist at the Higher Institute of Philosophy of the University of Leuven who founded a school of thought called Transcendental Thomism, which attempted to merge the theological and philosophical thought of St...
(1878–1944), Karl Rahner
Karl Rahner
Karl Rahner, SJ was a German Jesuit and theologian who, alongside Bernard Lonergan and Hans Urs von Balthasar, is considered one of the most influential Roman Catholic theologians of the 20th century...
(1904–1984), and Bernard J. F. Lonergan
Bernard Lonergan
Fr. Bernard J.F. Lonergan, CC, SJ was a Canadian Jesuit priest, philosopher, and theologian widely regarded as one of the most important Catholic thinkers of the twentieth century....
(1904–1984) developed a post-Kantian Thomism sometimes called “Transcendental Thomism.” The French theologians Charles Journet
Charles Journet
Charles Journet was a Swiss Catholic theologian and cardinal.Born in Geneva, Charles Journet studied at the seminary in Fribourg before being ordained to the priesthood on July 15, 1917. He then did pastoral work in the Diocese of Fribourg until 1924, and there taught at the seminary from 1924 to...
(1891–1975), Jacques Maritain
Jacques Maritain
Jacques Maritain was a French Catholic philosopher. Raised as a Protestant, he converted to Catholicism in 1906. An author of more than 60 books, he helped to revive St. Thomas Aquinas for modern times and is a prominent drafter of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights...
(1882–1973), and Étienne Gilson
Étienne Gilson
Étienne Gilson was a French Thomistic philosopher and historian of philosophy...
(1884–1978) contributed significantly to Thomistic methodology. Journet along with Maritain founded the journal Nova et Vetera
Nova et Vetera
Nova et Vetera is a theological review in the tradition of Thomism which focuses on contemporary issues facing the Roman Catholic Church. Published in the Swiss region of Romandy, the main language of the journal is French. It is also published in a distinct English edition founded by Matthew...
and contributed to sessions at Vatican II. Gilson founded the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies
Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies
The Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies is a research institute in the University of Toronto that is dedicated to advanced studies in the culture of the Middle Ages....
in Toronto
Toronto
Toronto is the provincial capital of Ontario and the largest city in Canada. It is located in Southern Ontario on the northwestern shore of Lake Ontario. A relatively modern city, Toronto's history dates back to the late-18th century, when its land was first purchased by the British monarchy from...
, Ontario
Ontario
Ontario is a province of Canada, located in east-central Canada. It is Canada's most populous province and second largest in total area. It is home to the nation's most populous city, Toronto, and the nation's capital, Ottawa....
. Gilson’s Being and Some Philosophers (1949) and Maritain’s The Degrees of Knowledge (1932) are still widely popular among students of Thomism. Together, Gilson and Matitain are sometimes called "existential Thomists."
French Dominicans Pierre Mandonnet
Pierre Mandonnet
Pierre Mandonnet was a Belgian Dominican historian, important in the neo-Thomist trend of historiography and the recovery of medieval philosophy. He made his reputation with a study of Siger of Brabant....
(1858–1936), Marie-Dominique Chenu
Marie-Dominique Chenu
Marie-Dominique Chenu was a progressive Roman Catholic theologian and a founder of the reformist journal Concilium. He entered the French Province of the Dominican Order in 1913. His earlier theological work was on St. Thomas Aquinas, employing an historical method...
(1895–1990), and Yves Congar
Yves Congar
Yves Marie Joseph Congar was a French Dominican cardinal and theologian.-Early life:Born in Sedan, in northeast France, in 1904, Congar's home was occupied by the Germans for much of World War I...
(1904–1995) explored the historical background of Thomas Aquinas and its relationship to theology. One of the best known French Dominicans of the twentieth century was Réginald Garrigou-Lagrange
Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange
Réginald Marie Garrigou-Lagrange, O.P. was a Catholic theologian and, among Thomists of the scholastic tradition, is generally thought to be the greatest Catholic Thomist of the 20th century. Outside the ranks of Thomists of that sort, his reputation is somewhat more mixed. He taught at the...
(1877–1964), who influenced generations of students during his tenure at the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas in Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
. These developments and contributions can be seen as a natural consequence of the aim of Aeterni Patris to bring faith and reason together in a fruitful dialectic. The spirit and thought of Saint Thomas Aquinas advocated by the encyclical has proven a valuable resource for Catholic philosophy and theology in bringing both faith and reason to bear on the problems of modern life.