40 acres and a mule
Encyclopedia
40 acres and a mule refers to the short-lived policy, during the last stages of the American Civil War
in 1865, of providing arable land
to black
former slaves who had become free as a result of the advance of the Union
armies into the territory previously controlled by the Confederacy
, particularly after Major General's William Tecumseh Sherman
's "March to the Sea
." General Sherman's Special Field Orders, No. 15
, issued on January 16, 1865, provided for the land, while some of its beneficiaries also received mule
s from the Army, for use in plowing. Forty acre
s (16 hectares) is a standard size for a rural family plot, being a sixteenth of a section
(square mile), or a quarter quarter-section, under the Public Land Survey System
used on land settled after 1785. The combination of a 40 acre plot and a mule was widely recognized as providing a sound start for a family farm.
The Special Field Orders issued by Sherman were never intended to reflect an official policy of the United States government with regards to all former slaves and were issued "throughout the campaign to assure the harmony of action in the area of operations." Sherman's orders specifically allocated "the islands from Charleston
, south, the abandoned rice fields along the rivers for thirty miles back from the sea, and the country bordering the St. Johns River
, Florida
." Brigadier General Rufus Saxton
, an abolitionist
from Massachusetts, was appointed by Sherman to oversee the settling of the freed slaves. By June 1865, around 10,000 freed slaves were settled on 400000 acres (161,874.4 ha) in Georgia
and South Carolina
.
After the assassination of President
Abraham Lincoln
, his successor, Andrew Johnson
, revoked Sherman's Orders and returned the land to its previous white owners. Because of this, the phrase "40 acres and a mule" has come to represent the failure of Reconstruction policies in restoring to African Americans the fruits of their labor.
It is sometimes mistakenly claimed that President Johnson also veto
ed the enactment of the policy as a federal statute (introduced as U.S. Senate
Bill 60). In fact, the Freedmen's Bureau
Bill which he vetoed made no mention of grants of land or mules. Another version of the Freedmen's bill, also without the land grants, was later passed after Johnson's second veto was overridden.
American Civil War
The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
in 1865, of providing arable land
Arable land
In geography and agriculture, arable land is land that can be used for growing crops. It includes all land under temporary crops , temporary meadows for mowing or pasture, land under market and kitchen gardens and land temporarily fallow...
to black
African American
African Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have at least partial ancestry from any of the native populations of Sub-Saharan Africa and are the direct descendants of enslaved Africans within the boundaries of the present United States...
former slaves who had become free as a result of the advance of the Union
Union (American Civil War)
During the American Civil War, the Union was a name used to refer to the federal government of the United States, which was supported by the twenty free states and five border slave states. It was opposed by 11 southern slave states that had declared a secession to join together to form the...
armies into the territory previously controlled by the Confederacy
Confederate States of America
The Confederate States of America was a government set up from 1861 to 1865 by 11 Southern slave states of the United States of America that had declared their secession from the U.S...
, particularly after Major General's William Tecumseh Sherman
William Tecumseh Sherman
William Tecumseh Sherman was an American soldier, businessman, educator and author. He served as a General in the Union Army during the American Civil War , for which he received recognition for his outstanding command of military strategy as well as criticism for the harshness of the "scorched...
's "March to the Sea
Sherman's March to the Sea
Sherman's March to the Sea is the name commonly given to the Savannah Campaign conducted around Georgia from November 15, 1864 to December 21, 1864 by Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman of the Union Army in the American Civil War...
." General Sherman's Special Field Orders, No. 15
Sherman's Special Field Orders, No. 15
Special Field Orders, No. 15 were military orders issued during the American Civil War, on January 16, 1865, by General William Tecumseh Sherman, commander of the Military Division of the Mississippi of the United States Army...
, issued on January 16, 1865, provided for the land, while some of its beneficiaries also received mule
Mule
A mule is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. Horses and donkeys are different species, with different numbers of chromosomes. Of the two F1 hybrids between these two species, a mule is easier to obtain than a hinny...
s from the Army, for use in plowing. Forty acre
Acre
The acre is a unit of area in a number of different systems, including the imperial and U.S. customary systems. The most commonly used acres today are the international acre and, in the United States, the survey acre. The most common use of the acre is to measure tracts of land.The acre is related...
s (16 hectares) is a standard size for a rural family plot, being a sixteenth of a section
Section (United States land surveying)
In U.S. land surveying under the Public Land Survey System , a section is an area nominally one square mile, containing , with 36 sections making up one survey township on a rectangular grid....
(square mile), or a quarter quarter-section, under the Public Land Survey System
Public Land Survey System
The Public Land Survey System is a method used in the United States to survey and identify land parcels, particularly for titles and deeds of rural, wild or undeveloped land. Its basic units of area are the township and section. It is sometimes referred to as the rectangular survey system,...
used on land settled after 1785. The combination of a 40 acre plot and a mule was widely recognized as providing a sound start for a family farm.
The Special Field Orders issued by Sherman were never intended to reflect an official policy of the United States government with regards to all former slaves and were issued "throughout the campaign to assure the harmony of action in the area of operations." Sherman's orders specifically allocated "the islands from Charleston
Charleston, South Carolina
Charleston is the second largest city in the U.S. state of South Carolina. It was made the county seat of Charleston County in 1901 when Charleston County was founded. The city's original name was Charles Towne in 1670, and it moved to its present location from a location on the west bank of the...
, south, the abandoned rice fields along the rivers for thirty miles back from the sea, and the country bordering the St. Johns River
St. Johns River
The St. Johns River is the longest river in the U.S. state of Florida and its most significant for commercial and recreational use. At long, it winds through or borders twelve counties, three of which are the state's largest. The drop in elevation from the headwaters to the mouth is less than ;...
, Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
." Brigadier General Rufus Saxton
Rufus Saxton
Rufus Saxton was a Union Army brigadier general during the American Civil War who received America's highest military decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions defending Harper's Ferry during Confederate General Jackson's Valley Campaign.-Early life:Saxton was born in Greenfield, Massachusetts...
, an abolitionist
Abolitionism
Abolitionism is a movement to end slavery.In western Europe and the Americas abolitionism was a movement to end the slave trade and set slaves free. At the behest of Dominican priest Bartolomé de las Casas who was shocked at the treatment of natives in the New World, Spain enacted the first...
from Massachusetts, was appointed by Sherman to oversee the settling of the freed slaves. By June 1865, around 10,000 freed slaves were settled on 400000 acres (161,874.4 ha) in Georgia
Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...
and South Carolina
South Carolina
South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...
.
After the assassination of President
President of the United States
The President of the United States of America is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces....
Abraham Lincoln
Abraham Lincoln
Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. He successfully led his country through a great constitutional, military and moral crisis – the American Civil War – preserving the Union, while ending slavery, and...
, his successor, Andrew Johnson
Andrew Johnson
Andrew Johnson was the 17th President of the United States . As Vice-President of the United States in 1865, he succeeded Abraham Lincoln following the latter's assassination. Johnson then presided over the initial and contentious Reconstruction era of the United States following the American...
, revoked Sherman's Orders and returned the land to its previous white owners. Because of this, the phrase "40 acres and a mule" has come to represent the failure of Reconstruction policies in restoring to African Americans the fruits of their labor.
It is sometimes mistakenly claimed that President Johnson also veto
Veto
A veto, Latin for "I forbid", is the power of an officer of the state to unilaterally stop an official action, especially enactment of a piece of legislation...
ed the enactment of the policy as a federal statute (introduced as U.S. Senate
United States Senate
The United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral legislature of the United States, and together with the United States House of Representatives comprises the United States Congress. The composition and powers of the Senate are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution. Each...
Bill 60). In fact, the Freedmen's Bureau
Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands
The Freedmen's Bureau, was a U.S. federal government agency that aided distressed freedmen in 1865–1869, during the Reconstruction era of the United States....
Bill which he vetoed made no mention of grants of land or mules. Another version of the Freedmen's bill, also without the land grants, was later passed after Johnson's second veto was overridden.
External links
- Bills and Resolutions, Senate, 39th Congress, 1st Session Bill 60, Library of Congress.
- Significant Dates on Black Land Loss – from Federation of Southern Cooperatives Land Assistance Fund