Zhoukoudian
Encyclopedia
Zhoukoudian or Choukoutien is a cave system
in Beijing
, China. It has yielded many archaeological
discoveries, including one of the first specimens of Homo erectus
, dubbed Peking Man
, and a fine assemblage of bones of the gigantic hyena Pachycrocuta brevirostris. Peking Man lived in this cave approximately 750,000 to 200,000 years ago.
The Peking Man Site was discovered by Johan Gunnar Andersson
in 1921
and was first excavated by Otto Zdansky
in 1921 and 1923
unearthing two human teeth. These were later identified by Davidson Black
as belonging to a previously unknown species and extensive excavations followed.
Fissure
s in the limestone
containing middle Pleistocene
deposits have yielded the remains of about 45 individuals as well as animal remains and stone flake
and chopping tool
s. The oldest are some 750,000 years old.
During the Upper Palaeolithic, the site was re-occupied and remains of Homo sapiens and its stone and bone tools have also been recovered from the Upper Cave.
The crater Choukoutien on asteroid 243 Ida
was named after the location.
first started his explorations of the region in 1918
at an area called Chicken-bone Hill by locals who have misidentified the rodent fossils that are in abundance there, but it was not until 1921
that he and American palaeontologist Walter W. Granger
were led to the site known as Dragon Bone Hill by local quarry men. Noticing some white quartz that was foreign to the area he immediately realised that this would be a good place to search for the remains of primitive man.
Excavations were undertaken by Andersson's assistant Austrian palaeontologist Otto Zdansky
in 1921 and 1923
unearthing a great deal of material that was sent back to Uppsala University
in Sweden for further analysis. In 1926
Anderson announced the discovery of two human molars amongst this material and the following year
Zdansky published his finding cautiously identifying the teeth as ?Homo sp.
, who was working for the Peking Union Medical College
at the time, was excited by Andersson and Zdansky's find and applied to the Rockefeller Foundation
for funding to undertake a systematic excavation of the site.
Funding was granted and the Zhoukoudian Project commenced excavations in 1927
under the supervision of Chinese
archaeologist Li Jie. That fall a tooth was unearthed by Swedish paleontologist Anders Birger Bohlin for which Black proposed belonged a new species named Sinanthropus pekinensis
. The following year
Black's excavations uncover more fossils of his new species including teeth, a substantial part of a juvenile's jaw and an adult jaw complete with three teeth. These finds allowed Black to secure an extra $80,000 grant from the Foundation which he used to establish a research laboratory.
of the Geological Survey of China
was established at the Peking Union Medical College
in 1928
with the assistance of Chinese
geologist
s Ding Wenjiang
and Weng Wenhao
for the research and appraisal of the fossils unearthed. Black stayed on at the Laboratory as honorary director while excavations continued at the site under Chinese paleontologist Yang Zhongjian
, anthropologists Pei Wenzhong
and Jia Lanpo
.
Conditions at the site remain primitive with scientists having to ride out to the excavation on mules, staying at caravansaries along the way, and when the first skullcap is unearthed at the site in 1929
it is done by Pei, working in a 40-meter crevasse in frigid weather with a hammer in one hand and a candle in the other. A second skullcap is discovered close to the first in 1930
and by 1932
nearly 100 workers are deployed on the site each day.
Despite the conditions at the site eminent researchers continue to visit. French palaeontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
has been a regular visitor to the site since 1926. French archaeologist Henri Breuil
visits in 1931
and confirms the presence of stone tools. That same year evidence of the use of fire at the cave becomes accepted.
The workaholic Black passes away one night in 1934
at his office with one of the skullcaps unearthed at the site on his desk. German Jewish anthropologist Franz Weidenreich
replaces him as honorary director of the Laboratory and excavations continue uncovering a further three skullcaps in 1936
.
Altogether excavations uncoverg 200 human fossils from more than 40 individuals including 5 nearly complete skullcaps before they are brought to a halt in 1937
by the Japanese invasion
of China. Reports of Japanese atrocities include the torture and murder of workers at the site, three bayoneted to death and a fourth forced to pull a rickshaw until dying of starvation.
In 1941
the bulk of the finds were lost, never to be recovered, while being transported to safety. Fortunately Weidenreich had taken copies of the fossils to preserve their physical characters.
unearthing new Peking Man fossils including 5 teeth and fragments of thigh and shin bone. The following year
a third premolar was discovered in the material sent back to Uppsala by Zdansky in 1921 and 1923.
Peking Man Site is designated type section of cave deposits of Middle Pleistocene in North China by the Annual Congress of the National Committee of Stratigraphy of China 1959
and a mandible fragment is unearthed.
Excavations led by Pei in 1966
unearthed a premolar and two pieces of skull fragment, these were discovered to match fragments retained from previous excavations in 1934 and 1936, and the only extant example of a nearly complete skullcap was pieced together.
Excavations at Locality 4 in Zhoukoudian, from 1972
–73
, unearth a Homo sapiens premolar.
Modern scientific dating techniques confirm that the site was occupied between 770,000 and 230,000 years ago.
Locality 1, also known as Peking Man Site, was the first to be discovered in 1921
under the direction of local quarry men. The site was originally a natural limestone cave although the roof had long since collapsed spreading a layer of breccia and rubble across the top of the deposits. Early excavations in 1921 and 1923
revealed evidence of human habitation from 750,000 to 200,000 years ago. The cave was excavated from 1927
-37
yielding 200 human fossils (from 40 individuals) identified as Homo erectus
, more than 10,000 pieces of stoneware, several cinder layers indicating fire use in early man, as well as animal fossils from 200 separate species. Tragically the bulk of this material was lost in 1941
during the Japanese Occupation
and has never been recovered. Excavations recommenced in 1949
and continued to yield fossils and artefacts making this site one of the most fruitful sources of material from the Middle Pleistocene
era.
A total of 13 layers have been excavated at the site to a depth of nearly 40 m.
Layers below this have been shown by test-pit drilling to not contain fossils or stoneware and have never been excavated.
Situated on the upper part of Dragon Bone Hill this cave was discovered in 1930
and excavated from 1933
–34
during which time the roof and north facing opening were removed. Excavations found evidence of human habitation in the cave dating back to 10,000 to 20,000 years ago. The cave was divided into an upper level living quarters and a lower level burial ground, while a small recess on the lower level acted as a natural animal trap. Finds unearthed included three human skulls and other remains from at least eight individuals identified as Archaic Homo sapiens
, tools and ornaments made from stone and bone, and numerous animal bones including complete skeletons of large mammals caught in the lower level trap. Also white powder sprinkled around the remains on the lower level indicates the inhabitants practiced burial rites.
Cave
A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. The term applies to natural cavities some part of which is in total darkness. The word cave also includes smaller spaces like rock shelters, sea caves, and grottos.Speleology is the science of exploration and study...
in Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
, China. It has yielded many archaeological
Archaeology
Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of human society, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes...
discoveries, including one of the first specimens of Homo erectus
Homo erectus
Homo erectus is an extinct species of hominid that lived from the end of the Pliocene epoch to the later Pleistocene, about . The species originated in Africa and spread as far as India, China and Java. There is still disagreement on the subject of the classification, ancestry, and progeny of H...
, dubbed Peking Man
Peking Man
Peking Man , Homo erectus pekinensis, is an example of Homo erectus. A group of fossil specimens was discovered in 1923-27 during excavations at Zhoukoudian near Beijing , China...
, and a fine assemblage of bones of the gigantic hyena Pachycrocuta brevirostris. Peking Man lived in this cave approximately 750,000 to 200,000 years ago.
The Peking Man Site was discovered by Johan Gunnar Andersson
Johan Gunnar Andersson
Johan Gunnar Andersson , Swedish archaeologist, paleontologist and geologist, closely associated with the beginnings of Chinese archaeology in the 1920s...
in 1921
1921 in archaeology
The year 1921 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:*Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian, China is discovered by Swedish geologist Johan Gunnar Andersson and American palaeontologist Walter W...
and was first excavated by Otto Zdansky
Otto Zdansky
Otto A. Zdansky was an Austrian paleontologist.He is best known for his work in China, where he, as an assistant to Johan Gunnar Andersson, discovered a fossil tooth of the Peking Man in 1921 at the Dragon Bone Hill, although he did not disclose it until 1926 when he published it in Nature after...
in 1921 and 1923
1923 in archaeology
The year 1923 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:*Expedition under Neil Merton Judd to collect dendrochronological specimens in order to date habitation of Chaco Canyon- Excavations:...
unearthing two human teeth. These were later identified by Davidson Black
Davidson Black
Davidson Black, FRS was a Canadian paleoanthropologist, best known for his naming of Sinanthropus pekinensis . He was Chairman of the Geological Survey of China and a Fellow of the Royal Society...
as belonging to a previously unknown species and extensive excavations followed.
Fissure
Fissure
In anatomy, a fissure is a groove, natural division, deep furrow, elongated cleft, or tear in various parts of the body.-Brain:...
s in the limestone
Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate . Many limestones are composed from skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera....
containing middle Pleistocene
Pleistocene
The Pleistocene is the epoch from 2,588,000 to 11,700 years BP that spans the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The name pleistocene is derived from the Greek and ....
deposits have yielded the remains of about 45 individuals as well as animal remains and stone flake
Lithic flake
In archaeology, a lithic flake is a "portion of rock removed from an objective piece by percussion or pressure," and may also be referred to as a chip or spall, or collectively as debitage. The objective piece, or the rock being reduced by the removal of flakes, is known as a core. Once the proper...
and chopping tool
Chopping tool
In archaeology, a chopping tool is a form of prehistoric stone tool, considered to be a refinement of the earlier chopper.Unlike the crude chopper, the chopping tool is created by removing flakes from two sides of a lithic core...
s. The oldest are some 750,000 years old.
During the Upper Palaeolithic, the site was re-occupied and remains of Homo sapiens and its stone and bone tools have also been recovered from the Upper Cave.
The crater Choukoutien on asteroid 243 Ida
243 Ida
243 Ida is an asteroid in the Koronis family of the asteroid belt. It was discovered on 29 September 1884 by Johann Palisa and named after a nymph from Greek mythology. Later telescopic observations categorized Ida as an S-type asteroid, the most numerous type in the inner asteroid belt. On 28...
was named after the location.
Excavation history
Discovery
Swedish geologist Johan Gunnar AnderssonJohan Gunnar Andersson
Johan Gunnar Andersson , Swedish archaeologist, paleontologist and geologist, closely associated with the beginnings of Chinese archaeology in the 1920s...
first started his explorations of the region in 1918
1918 in archaeology
The year 1918 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* Ballshi inscription, a 9th-century epigraph testifying to the christianization of Bulgaria-Births:...
at an area called Chicken-bone Hill by locals who have misidentified the rodent fossils that are in abundance there, but it was not until 1921
1921 in archaeology
The year 1921 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:*Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian, China is discovered by Swedish geologist Johan Gunnar Andersson and American palaeontologist Walter W...
that he and American palaeontologist Walter W. Granger
Walter W. Granger
Walter Willis Granger was an American vertebrate paleontologist who participated in important fossil explorations in the United States, Egypt, China and Mongolia.-Early life and career:...
were led to the site known as Dragon Bone Hill by local quarry men. Noticing some white quartz that was foreign to the area he immediately realised that this would be a good place to search for the remains of primitive man.
Excavations were undertaken by Andersson's assistant Austrian palaeontologist Otto Zdansky
Otto Zdansky
Otto A. Zdansky was an Austrian paleontologist.He is best known for his work in China, where he, as an assistant to Johan Gunnar Andersson, discovered a fossil tooth of the Peking Man in 1921 at the Dragon Bone Hill, although he did not disclose it until 1926 when he published it in Nature after...
in 1921 and 1923
1923 in archaeology
The year 1923 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:*Expedition under Neil Merton Judd to collect dendrochronological specimens in order to date habitation of Chaco Canyon- Excavations:...
unearthing a great deal of material that was sent back to Uppsala University
Uppsala University
Uppsala University is a research university in Uppsala, Sweden, and is the oldest university in Scandinavia, founded in 1477. It consistently ranks among the best universities in Northern Europe in international rankings and is generally considered one of the most prestigious institutions of...
in Sweden for further analysis. In 1926
1926 in archaeology
The year 1926 saw a number of significant events in the field of archaeology:-Explorations:* February: Thomas Gann visits the Mayan ruin of Coba, and publishes the first first-hand description of the site later in the year....
Anderson announced the discovery of two human molars amongst this material and the following year
1927 in archaeology
The year 1927 in archaeology involved some significant events.- Excavations:* Large scale excavations begin at Peking Man Site in Zhoukoudian, China under Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson Black with support from the Rockefeller Foundation....
Zdansky published his finding cautiously identifying the teeth as ?Homo sp.
Zhoukoudian Project
Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson BlackDavidson Black
Davidson Black, FRS was a Canadian paleoanthropologist, best known for his naming of Sinanthropus pekinensis . He was Chairman of the Geological Survey of China and a Fellow of the Royal Society...
, who was working for the Peking Union Medical College
Peking Union Medical College
Peking Union Medical College is among the most selective medical colleges in the People's Republic of China and is renowned both in its own right and for being connected to one of China's most prestigious institutions of higher learning.-History:...
at the time, was excited by Andersson and Zdansky's find and applied to the Rockefeller Foundation
Rockefeller Foundation
The Rockefeller Foundation is a prominent philanthropic organization and private foundation based at 420 Fifth Avenue, New York City. The preeminent institution established by the six-generation Rockefeller family, it was founded by John D. Rockefeller , along with his son John D. Rockefeller, Jr...
for funding to undertake a systematic excavation of the site.
Funding was granted and the Zhoukoudian Project commenced excavations in 1927
1927 in archaeology
The year 1927 in archaeology involved some significant events.- Excavations:* Large scale excavations begin at Peking Man Site in Zhoukoudian, China under Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson Black with support from the Rockefeller Foundation....
under the supervision of Chinese
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
archaeologist Li Jie. That fall a tooth was unearthed by Swedish paleontologist Anders Birger Bohlin for which Black proposed belonged a new species named Sinanthropus pekinensis
Peking Man
Peking Man , Homo erectus pekinensis, is an example of Homo erectus. A group of fossil specimens was discovered in 1923-27 during excavations at Zhoukoudian near Beijing , China...
. The following year
1928 in archaeology
The year 1928 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:* American astronomer and University of Arizona professor A. E. Douglass participates in a National Geographic Society research project under Neil Merton Judd exploring Chaco Canyon...
Black's excavations uncover more fossils of his new species including teeth, a substantial part of a juvenile's jaw and an adult jaw complete with three teeth. These finds allowed Black to secure an extra $80,000 grant from the Foundation which he used to establish a research laboratory.
Cenozoic Research Laboratory
The Cenozoic Research LaboratoryCenozoic Research Laboratory
The Cenozoic Research Laboratory of the Geological Survey of China was established at the Peking Union Medical College in 1928 by Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson Black and Chinese geologists Ding Wenjing and Weng Wenhao for the research and appraisal of Peking Man fossils unearthed at...
of the Geological Survey of China
Geological Survey of China
The Geological Survey of China is a government-owned, not-for-profit, Chinese organization researching China's mineral resources. It is the largest Geoscience agency in China since being reconstructed in 1999.-History:...
was established at the Peking Union Medical College
Peking Union Medical College
Peking Union Medical College is among the most selective medical colleges in the People's Republic of China and is renowned both in its own right and for being connected to one of China's most prestigious institutions of higher learning.-History:...
in 1928
1928 in archaeology
The year 1928 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:* American astronomer and University of Arizona professor A. E. Douglass participates in a National Geographic Society research project under Neil Merton Judd exploring Chaco Canyon...
with the assistance of Chinese
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
geologist
Geologist
A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth as well as the processes and history that has shaped it. Geologists usually engage in studying geology. Geologists, studying more of an applied science than a theoretical one, must approach Geology using...
s Ding Wenjiang
Ding Wenjiang
Ding Wenjiang , courtesy name Zaijun, was a Chinese geologist and social activist.Ding was born into a wealthy family in Taixing, Jiangsu Province. He went to study in Japan in 1902, and later studied in Britain, majoring in zoology and geology. In 1911, Ding graduated from University of Glasgow...
and Weng Wenhao
Weng Wenhao
Weng Wenhao was a Chinese geologist, educator, and paramount politician....
for the research and appraisal of the fossils unearthed. Black stayed on at the Laboratory as honorary director while excavations continued at the site under Chinese paleontologist Yang Zhongjian
Yang Zhongjian
Yang Zhongjian , courtesy name Keqiang , also known as C.C. Young, was one of China's foremost paleontologists. He has been called the 'Father of Chinese vertebrate paleontology'...
, anthropologists Pei Wenzhong
Pei Wenzhong
Pei Wenzhong was a Chinese paleontologist, archaeologist and anthropologist. Professor Pei is considered the founding father of Chinese anthropology....
and Jia Lanpo
Jia Lanpo
Jia Lanpo was a Chinese prehistorian. Professor Jia was one of the founders of Chinese anthropology.He graduated from the Huiwen Academy in 1929 and went on to work as a trainee at the Cenozoic Research Laboratory of the Geological Survey of China...
.
Conditions at the site remain primitive with scientists having to ride out to the excavation on mules, staying at caravansaries along the way, and when the first skullcap is unearthed at the site in 1929
1929 in archaeology
The year 1929 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:* Expedition under Neil Merton Judd to collect dendrochronological specimens to date habitation of Chaco Canyon....
it is done by Pei, working in a 40-meter crevasse in frigid weather with a hammer in one hand and a candle in the other. A second skullcap is discovered close to the first in 1930
1930 in archaeology
- Excavations:* Vere Gordon Childe completes excavations at Skara Brae .* John Garstang begins excavations at Jericho .* Flinders Petrie begins excavations at Tall al-Ajjul .-Miscellaneous:...
and by 1932
1932 in archaeology
The year 1932 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* Excavations of Antioch begun by an international committee ....
nearly 100 workers are deployed on the site each day.
Despite the conditions at the site eminent researchers continue to visit. French palaeontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin SJ was a French philosopher and Jesuit priest who trained as a paleontologist and geologist and took part in the discovery of both Piltdown Man and Peking Man. Teilhard conceived the idea of the Omega Point and developed Vladimir Vernadsky's concept of Noosphere...
has been a regular visitor to the site since 1926. French archaeologist Henri Breuil
Henri Breuil
Henri Édouard Prosper Breuil , often referred to as Abbé Breuil, was a French Catholic priest, archaeologist, anthropologist, ethnologist and geologist...
visits in 1931
1931 in archaeology
The year 1931 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* Chinese prehistorian Jia Lanpo and archaeologist Bian Mienmien join the ongoing excavations at Peking Man Site in Zhoukoudian, China....
and confirms the presence of stone tools. That same year evidence of the use of fire at the cave becomes accepted.
The workaholic Black passes away one night in 1934
1934 in archaeology
The year 1934 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:* Maya site of Becan rediscovered by archaeologists Karl Ruppert and John Denison.-Excavations:...
at his office with one of the skullcaps unearthed at the site on his desk. German Jewish anthropologist Franz Weidenreich
Franz Weidenreich
-External references:*...
replaces him as honorary director of the Laboratory and excavations continue uncovering a further three skullcaps in 1936
1936 in archaeology
The year 1936 in archaeology involved some significant events.- Excavations:* Dmanisi, Georgia.* Julliberrie's Grave by Ronald Jessup.* Spiro Mounds by University of Oklahoma.* Fort Hawkins, Georgia, by Gordon Willey.* Govurqala, Azerbaijan....
.
Altogether excavations uncoverg 200 human fossils from more than 40 individuals including 5 nearly complete skullcaps before they are brought to a halt in 1937
1937 in archaeology
The year 1937 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* Uaxactun project by Carnegie Institution led by Oliver Ricketson ends.* Excavations at Vergina conducted by University of Thessaloniki....
by the Japanese invasion
Second Sino-Japanese War
The Second Sino-Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. From 1937 to 1941, China fought Japan with some economic help from Germany , the Soviet Union and the United States...
of China. Reports of Japanese atrocities include the torture and murder of workers at the site, three bayoneted to death and a fourth forced to pull a rickshaw until dying of starvation.
In 1941
1941 in archaeology
The year 1941 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* June 19 - Mikhail M. Gerasimov opens Tamerlane's tomb.* Excavations at Olmec site of La Venta by Matthew Sterling begin....
the bulk of the finds were lost, never to be recovered, while being transported to safety. Fortunately Weidenreich had taken copies of the fossils to preserve their physical characters.
Post War Excavations
Excavation work was recommenced in 19491949 in archaeology
The year 1949 in archaeology involved some significant events.- Excavations:* Excavation work recommences at the Peking Man Site in Zhoukoudian, China.* Alberto Ruz Lhuillier begins excavations of the Temple of the Inscriptions, Palenque....
unearthing new Peking Man fossils including 5 teeth and fragments of thigh and shin bone. The following year
1950 in archaeology
- Excavations:* Excavations at Stonehenge by R. J. C. Atkinson, Stuart Piggott and J. F. S. Stone.* Excavations at Wharram Percy by Maurice Beresford begin.* Excavations at Beitin.* Excavations at Gordium by the University of Pennsylvania Museum under Rodney S...
a third premolar was discovered in the material sent back to Uppsala by Zdansky in 1921 and 1923.
Peking Man Site is designated type section of cave deposits of Middle Pleistocene in North China by the Annual Congress of the National Committee of Stratigraphy of China 1959
1959 in archaeology
The year 1959 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* At Mesa Verde National Park, the Wetherill Mesa Archeological Project begins for excavation of three cliff dwellings , including a survey of Wetherill Mesa and excavation of selected mesa-top sites .* Excavations begin at...
and a mandible fragment is unearthed.
Excavations led by Pei in 1966
1966 in archaeology
The year 1966 in archaeology involved some significant events.- Excavations:* Excavation of the Maya site of Chinkultic by Stephan F. de Borhegyi of the Public Museum of Milwaukee, Wisconsin.* New excavations at Viroconium in England begin....
unearthed a premolar and two pieces of skull fragment, these were discovered to match fragments retained from previous excavations in 1934 and 1936, and the only extant example of a nearly complete skullcap was pieced together.
Excavations at Locality 4 in Zhoukoudian, from 1972
1972 in archaeology
The year 1972 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* National Institute of Anthropology and History excavations at Maya site of Coba begin under direction of Carlos Navarrete.* Tell Abu Hureyra, in Syria....
–73
1973 in archaeology
The year 1973 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* Meadowcroft Rock Shelter under James M. Adovasio.* Heavenly Horse Tomb , a mounded tomb of Silla royalty in Gyeongju, Korea....
, unearth a Homo sapiens premolar.
Modern scientific dating techniques confirm that the site was occupied between 770,000 and 230,000 years ago.
Peking Man Site
1921 in archaeology
The year 1921 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:*Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian, China is discovered by Swedish geologist Johan Gunnar Andersson and American palaeontologist Walter W...
under the direction of local quarry men. The site was originally a natural limestone cave although the roof had long since collapsed spreading a layer of breccia and rubble across the top of the deposits. Early excavations in 1921 and 1923
1923 in archaeology
The year 1923 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:*Expedition under Neil Merton Judd to collect dendrochronological specimens in order to date habitation of Chaco Canyon- Excavations:...
revealed evidence of human habitation from 750,000 to 200,000 years ago. The cave was excavated from 1927
1927 in archaeology
The year 1927 in archaeology involved some significant events.- Excavations:* Large scale excavations begin at Peking Man Site in Zhoukoudian, China under Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson Black with support from the Rockefeller Foundation....
-37
1937 in archaeology
The year 1937 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* Uaxactun project by Carnegie Institution led by Oliver Ricketson ends.* Excavations at Vergina conducted by University of Thessaloniki....
yielding 200 human fossils (from 40 individuals) identified as Homo erectus
Homo erectus
Homo erectus is an extinct species of hominid that lived from the end of the Pliocene epoch to the later Pleistocene, about . The species originated in Africa and spread as far as India, China and Java. There is still disagreement on the subject of the classification, ancestry, and progeny of H...
, more than 10,000 pieces of stoneware, several cinder layers indicating fire use in early man, as well as animal fossils from 200 separate species. Tragically the bulk of this material was lost in 1941
1941 in archaeology
The year 1941 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* June 19 - Mikhail M. Gerasimov opens Tamerlane's tomb.* Excavations at Olmec site of La Venta by Matthew Sterling begin....
during the Japanese Occupation
Second Sino-Japanese War
The Second Sino-Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. From 1937 to 1941, China fought Japan with some economic help from Germany , the Soviet Union and the United States...
and has never been recovered. Excavations recommenced in 1949
1949 in archaeology
The year 1949 in archaeology involved some significant events.- Excavations:* Excavation work recommences at the Peking Man Site in Zhoukoudian, China.* Alberto Ruz Lhuillier begins excavations of the Temple of the Inscriptions, Palenque....
and continued to yield fossils and artefacts making this site one of the most fruitful sources of material from the Middle Pleistocene
Middle Pleistocene
The Middle Pleistocene, more specifically referred to as the Ionian stage, is a period of geologic time from ca. 781 to 126 thousand years ago....
era.
A total of 13 layers have been excavated at the site to a depth of nearly 40 m.
| Layer | Thick | Consistency | Finds |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1-2 | 4m | Breccia Breccia Breccia is a rock composed of broken fragments of minerals or rock cemented together by a fine-grained matrix, that can be either similar to or different from the composition of the fragments.... & travertine Travertine Travertine is a form of limestone deposited by mineral springs, especially hot springs. Travertine often has a fibrous or concentric appearance and exists in white, tan, and cream-colored varieties. It is formed by a process of rapid precipitation of calcium carbonate, often at the mouth of a hot... |
Fossils & stoneware |
| 3 | 3m | Course breccia & limestone Limestone Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate . Many limestones are composed from skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera.... blocks formed by the roof collapse |
Peking Man skull (1966), fossils & stoneware |
| 4 | 6m | Ash & limestone blocks | Upper Cultural Zone of burned bone & stone, fossils & stoneware |
| 5 | 1m | Ragstone | Fossils & stoneware |
| 6 | 5m | Breccia, limestone blocks & Hyena Hyena Hyenas or Hyaenas are the animals of the family Hyaenidae of suborder feliforms of the Carnivora. It is the fourth smallest biological family in the Carnivora , and one of the smallest in the mammalia... dung |
Fossils & stoneware |
| 7 | 2m | Sand Sand Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles.The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal... |
Fossils & stoneware |
| 8-9 | 6m | Breccia & ash | Lower Cultural Zone containing majority of the Peking Man fossils recovered |
| 10 | 2m | Laterite Laterite Laterites are soil types rich in iron and aluminium, formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Nearly all laterites are rusty-red because of iron oxides. They develop by intensive and long-lasting weathering of the underlying parent rock... and ash |
Fossils & stoneware |
| 11 | 2m | Breccia | First Peking Man skull (1929), fossils & stoneware |
| 12 | 2m | Red sand | Fossils |
| 13 | 2m | Silt & Hyena dung | Fossils & stoneware |
Layers below this have been shown by test-pit drilling to not contain fossils or stoneware and have never been excavated.
East SlopePart of Peking Man Site this slope was excavated 19301930 in archaeology - Excavations:* Vere Gordon Childe completes excavations at Skara Brae .* John Garstang begins excavations at Jericho .* Flinders Petrie begins excavations at Tall al-Ajjul .-Miscellaneous:... –58 1958 in archaeology The year 1958 in archaeology involved some significant events.- Excavations:* Maya site of Dzibilchaltun, National Geographic Society project under E... and again in 1978 1978 in archaeology The year 1978 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* New excavations at Brahmagiri by Amalananda Ghosh.-Finds:* February 21 - The remains of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan.* Bactrian Gold hoard.-Publications:... –79 1979 in archaeology The year 1979 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:* Tillya Tepe surveyed by a Soviet-Afghan mission of archaeologists led by Victor Sarianidi.-Excavations:* Hengistbury Head by Barry Cunliffe .-Finds:... by a multi-disciplinary research mission. Excavation have dug to a depth of 7m through Layers 3-6 and have unearthed stone tools, burned bones and ashes, and fossils of bird, reptile and mammal species. |
Pigeon HallPigeon Hall was named in honour of its frequent visitors and was connected with Peking Man Site by workmen in 1928. Excavations from 1930-31 unearthed numerous Peking Man bones (including mandible, clavicleClavicle In human anatomy, the clavicle or collar bone is a long bone of short length that serves as a strut between the scapula and the sternum. It is the only long bone in body that lies horizontally... and parietal bone Parietal bone The parietal bones are bones in the human skull which, when joined together, form the sides and roof of the cranium. Each bone is roughly quadrilateral in form, and has two surfaces, four borders, and four angles. It is named from the Latin pariet-, wall.... ), signs of fire use (including a scorched redbud stick), and stone tools of quartz and green sandstone. |
Upper Cave
1930 in archaeology
- Excavations:* Vere Gordon Childe completes excavations at Skara Brae .* John Garstang begins excavations at Jericho .* Flinders Petrie begins excavations at Tall al-Ajjul .-Miscellaneous:...
and excavated from 1933
1933 in archaeology
The year 1933 in archaeology involved some significant events.- Excavations:* Excavations at Et-Tell by Judith Marquet-Krause begin ....
–34
1934 in archaeology
The year 1934 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:* Maya site of Becan rediscovered by archaeologists Karl Ruppert and John Denison.-Excavations:...
during which time the roof and north facing opening were removed. Excavations found evidence of human habitation in the cave dating back to 10,000 to 20,000 years ago. The cave was divided into an upper level living quarters and a lower level burial ground, while a small recess on the lower level acted as a natural animal trap. Finds unearthed included three human skulls and other remains from at least eight individuals identified as Archaic Homo sapiens
Archaic Homo sapiens
Archaic Homo sapiens is a loosely defined term used to describe a number of varieties of Homo, as opposed to anatomically modern humans , in the period beginning 500,000 years ago....
, tools and ornaments made from stone and bone, and numerous animal bones including complete skeletons of large mammals caught in the lower level trap. Also white powder sprinkled around the remains on the lower level indicates the inhabitants practiced burial rites.
Other Localities
More than 20 fossil bearing localities have been excavated in Zhoukoudian to date.Locality 2This north-south running fissure is filled with red binder soil and dates to the Middle Pleistocene era. Excavations in 1921 concurrent with those at Peking Man Site unearthed mammalian fossils including hamster, rhino and Chinese hyena.Locality 3Discovered in 19271927 in archaeology The year 1927 in archaeology involved some significant events.- Excavations:* Large scale excavations begin at Peking Man Site in Zhoukoudian, China under Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson Black with support from the Rockefeller Foundation.... this east-west running fissure is filled with breccia Breccia Breccia is a rock composed of broken fragments of minerals or rock cemented together by a fine-grained matrix, that can be either similar to or different from the composition of the fragments.... and dates to the late Middle Pleistocene era. Excavations in 1933 1933 in archaeology The year 1933 in archaeology involved some significant events.- Excavations:* Excavations at Et-Tell by Judith Marquet-Krause begin .... unearthed mammalian fossils including porcupine, racoon dog and badger. Locality 4Discovered in 1927 this north-south running fissure is filled with yellow sandy clay and dates to the late Middle Pleistocene era. Excavations from 19371937 in archaeology The year 1937 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* Uaxactun project by Carnegie Institution led by Oliver Ricketson ends.* Excavations at Vergina conducted by University of Thessaloniki.... –38 1938 in archaeology The year 1938 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:* Matthew Stirling first visits the Tres Zapotes and San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán sites.-Excavations:... unearthed stoneware, burned bones and seeds (indicating fire use in early man) and fossils of jackal and deer. A second excavation in 1973 1973 in archaeology The year 1973 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* Meadowcroft Rock Shelter under James M. Adovasio.* Heavenly Horse Tomb , a mounded tomb of Silla royalty in Gyeongju, Korea.... unearthed a human premolar and the fossilised remains of 40 mammalian species including macaque, pig, bear and horse. Cap DepositThis deposit, located 60m above the riverbed, is filled with layers of sand and gravel and dates to the late Early Pliocene era. Excavations from 1937-38 unearthed mammalian fossils including civet and bamboo rat.New CaveDiscovered in 19671967 in archaeology The year 1967 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:* June 12 - New England Textile Mills Survey commenced by the Historic American Buildings Survey.... , this cave connects with Locality 4 to its south. The deposits formed by hydrostatic sedimentation in stagnant water conditions contained no fossils or human related artefacts. |
Locality 12Discovered in 1933, when Locality 3 was being excavated, this column shaped corrosion pit is filled with red grit and dates to the late Early Pleistocene era. Excavations unearthed fossils of 22 mammalian species including sabre-toothed tiger and an extinct primate.Locality 13This fissure in a limestone mound 1 km south of Peking Man Site dates to the early Middle Pleistocene era and is the earliest site of cultural remains excavated so far at Zhoukoudian. Excavations of the thin-bedded sandy clay about 50m above the river bed have unearthed stone artefacts, ash and charred bones and 36 species of deeply fossilised mammalian fossils including thick-jawed giant deer and sabre-toothed tiger.Locality 14This narrow limestone cave 1.5 km south of Peking Man Site dates to the Early Pliocene era and has yielded some of Zhoukoudian oldest fossils, dating back 5 million years. Excavations, in 1933, 19511951 in archaeology The year 1951 in archaeology involved some significant events.- Excavations:* Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications in North Yorkshire, by Mortimer Wheeler .* Hod Hill in Dorset, by Ian Richmond for the British Museum .... and 1953 1953 in archaeology The year 1953 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Events:* November 21: Piltdown Man is shown to be a hoax.* Michael Ventris deciphers Minoan Linear B.-Publications:* O. G. S. Crawford - Archaeology in the Field .... , of the thin-bedded fine sandstone about 70m above the river bed have unearthed more than 600 nearly complete fish fossils of four different species, two of which are now extinct. Locality 15Discovered in 19321932 in archaeology The year 1932 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* Excavations of Antioch begun by an international committee .... this relatively young site dates to around 100,000 to 200,000 years ago. Excavations from 1934 1934 in archaeology The year 1934 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Explorations:* Maya site of Becan rediscovered by archaeologists Karl Ruppert and John Denison.-Excavations:... –35 1935 in archaeology The year 1935 in archaeology involved some significant events.-Excavations:* December: Chinese prehistorian Jia Lanpo appointed field director of the continuing excavations at Peking Man site in Zhoukoudian, China.-Miscellaneous:... revealed three layers; an upper layer of loess and limestone debris; a middle layer containing ash, stoneware, burned bones and hackberry seeds; and a lower layer of red clay containing stoneware and bird and mammalian fossils including woolly rhino, giant deer and gazelle. The site has yet to be fully excavated. |
See also
- Peking ManPeking ManPeking Man , Homo erectus pekinensis, is an example of Homo erectus. A group of fossil specimens was discovered in 1923-27 during excavations at Zhoukoudian near Beijing , China...
- List of fossil sites (with link directory)
- List of hominina (hominid) fossils (with images)
- List of World Heritage Sites in China