Weather reconnaissance
Encyclopedia
Weather reconnaissance is the acquisition of weather data used for research and planning. Typically the term reconnaissance refers to observing weather from the air, as opposed to the ground (for example, ground based weather radar
).
Helicopter
Helicopters are not built to withstand the severe turbulence encountered in hurricane rainbands and eye walls. One reason is that a helicopter receives all of its lift from its rotating blades, and they are most likely to break off in hurricane conditions.
Fixed-wing aircraft
The Lockheed WC-130J aircraft is a venerable workhorse. It flies directly into the hurricane, typically penetrating the hurricane's eye several times per mission at altitudes between 500 feet (152.4 m) and 10000 feet (3,048 m). The 53rd WRS Hurricane Hunters operate ten WC-130J aircraft for weather reconnaissance.
The WP-3D Orion aircraft flown by the NOAA Hurricane Hunters
are heavily instrumented flying laboratories specifically modified to take atmospheric and radar measurements within tropical cyclones and winter storms.
The NOAA Gulfstream IV
high altitude jet conducts hurricane surveillance flying upwards of 4000 miles (6,437.4 km) each flight to document upper and lower level winds that affect the movement of tropical cyclones. The hurricane models (computer models predicting hurricane tracks and intensity) mainly utilize NOAA G-IV dropwindsonde data that is collected both day and night in storms affecting the United States.
Other aircraft have been used to investigate hurricanes, including an instrumented Lockheed U-2
that was flown in Hurricane Ginny
during the 1963 Atlantic hurricane season
.
Past aircraft used were the A-20 Havoc, 1944; B-24, 1944–1945; B-17, 1945–1947; B-25, 1946–1947; B-29, 1946–1947. WB-29, 1951–1956; WB-50
, 1956–1963; WB-47, 1963–1969; WC-121N 1954-1973; WC-130A,B,E,H, 1965-2005.
s have fallen out of favor due to their high operating cost. Unmanned weather buoy
s, replaced weather ships when they became prohibitively expensive. Since the 1970s, their role has been largely superseded by weather buoys by design. Across the northern Atlantic, the number of weather ships dwindled over the years. The original nine ships in the region had fallen to eight by the 1970s. In 1974, the Coast Guard announced plans to terminate the United States stations, and, in 1977, the last United States weather ship was replaced by a newly-developed weather buoy.
By 1983, data was still being collected by ships M ("Mike"), R ("Romeo"), C ("Charlie"), and L ("Lima"), Because of high operating costs and budget issues, weather ship R ("Romeo") was recalled from the Bay of Biscay
before the deployment of a weather buoy for the region. This recall was blamed for the minimal warning given in advance of the Great Storm of 1987. The last weather ship was Polarfront, known as weather station M ("Mike") at 66°N, 02°E, run by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute
. Polarfront was put out of operation 1 January 2010. Despite the loss of designated weather ships, weather observations from ships continue from a fleet of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation, which have increased in number over the decades.
launches and landings. Meteorologists analyze images to predict regions of cloud formation and dissipation. Special attention is paid to low clouds and convective
cloud particularly cumulonimbus incus
clouds. Satellite imagery is used to ascertain cloud-top temperatures to analyze the potential for lightning. Certain types of imagery are valued for their ability to view fog and low clouds at night. Satellite imagery in the long term can help enhance the shuttle flight landing procedure.
Prior to shuttle launches or landings, pilots fly aircraft that provide cloud, wind, turbulence, visibility, and precipitation information. Aircraft are flown along the future flight path of the shuttle and observations are noted. This complements radar and satellite data and only provides information that is useful for short-term (up to four hours before launch or landing) but not long-term forecasting. Aerial reconnaissance often provides a more accurate assessment of weather conditions than radar or satellite imagery.
Weather reconnaissance is also provided by weather balloons.
Weather radar
Weather radar, also called weather surveillance radar and Doppler weather radar, is a type of radar used to locate precipitation, calculate its motion, estimate its type . Modern weather radars are mostly pulse-Doppler radars, capable of detecting the motion of rain droplets in addition to the...
).
Aircraft
BalloonHelicopter
Helicopters are not built to withstand the severe turbulence encountered in hurricane rainbands and eye walls. One reason is that a helicopter receives all of its lift from its rotating blades, and they are most likely to break off in hurricane conditions.
Fixed-wing aircraft
The Lockheed WC-130J aircraft is a venerable workhorse. It flies directly into the hurricane, typically penetrating the hurricane's eye several times per mission at altitudes between 500 feet (152.4 m) and 10000 feet (3,048 m). The 53rd WRS Hurricane Hunters operate ten WC-130J aircraft for weather reconnaissance.
The WP-3D Orion aircraft flown by the NOAA Hurricane Hunters
NOAA Hurricane Hunters
The NOAA Hurricane Hunters work under the Aircraft Operations Center , located on MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida. The Aircraft Operations Center is under the Office of Marine and Aviation Operations , which is a branch of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . NOAA is part...
are heavily instrumented flying laboratories specifically modified to take atmospheric and radar measurements within tropical cyclones and winter storms.
The NOAA Gulfstream IV
Gulfstream IV
The Gulfstream IV and derivatives are a family of twin-jet aircraft, mainly for private or business use. The aircraft was designed and built by Gulfstream Aerospace, a General Dynamics company based in Savannah, Georgia, United States from 1985 until 2003.-Design and development:Gulfstream, in...
high altitude jet conducts hurricane surveillance flying upwards of 4000 miles (6,437.4 km) each flight to document upper and lower level winds that affect the movement of tropical cyclones. The hurricane models (computer models predicting hurricane tracks and intensity) mainly utilize NOAA G-IV dropwindsonde data that is collected both day and night in storms affecting the United States.
Other aircraft have been used to investigate hurricanes, including an instrumented Lockheed U-2
Lockheed U-2
The Lockheed U-2, nicknamed "Dragon Lady", is a single-engine, very high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft operated by the United States Air Force and previously flown by the Central Intelligence Agency . It provides day and night, very high-altitude , all-weather intelligence gathering...
that was flown in Hurricane Ginny
Hurricane Ginny
Hurricane Ginny in the 1963 Atlantic hurricane season was the latest Atlantic hurricane on record to affect the U.S. state of Maine. It developed on October 16 over the Bahamas, although it was not initially a fully tropical cyclone. As it moved to the north and later northwest, Ginny...
during the 1963 Atlantic hurricane season
1963 Atlantic hurricane season
The 1963 Atlantic hurricane season was a below average Atlantic hurricane season, with nine named storms. Although the season officially began on June 1, the first storm did not form until nearly a month later. Hurricane Cindy made landfall in Texas before dissipating in the southern portion of the...
.
Past aircraft used were the A-20 Havoc, 1944; B-24, 1944–1945; B-17, 1945–1947; B-25, 1946–1947; B-29, 1946–1947. WB-29, 1951–1956; WB-50
B-50 Superfortress
The Boeing B-50 Superfortress strategic bomber was a post-World War II revision of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, fitted with more powerful Pratt & Whitney R-4360 radial engines, stronger structure, a taller fin, and other improvements. It was the last piston-engined bomber designed by Boeing for...
, 1956–1963; WB-47, 1963–1969; WC-121N 1954-1973; WC-130A,B,E,H, 1965-2005.
Watercraft
Watercraft deployed for use as weather shipWeather ship
A weather ship was a ship stationed in the ocean as a platform for surface and upper air meteorological observations for use in weather forecasting. They were primarily located in the north Atlantic and north Pacific oceans, reporting via radio...
s have fallen out of favor due to their high operating cost. Unmanned weather buoy
Weather buoy
Weather buoys are instruments which collect weather and ocean data within the world's oceans, as well as aiding during emergency response to chemical spills, legal proceedings, and engineering design. Moored buoys have been in used since 1951, while drifting buoys have been used since 1979...
s, replaced weather ships when they became prohibitively expensive. Since the 1970s, their role has been largely superseded by weather buoys by design. Across the northern Atlantic, the number of weather ships dwindled over the years. The original nine ships in the region had fallen to eight by the 1970s. In 1974, the Coast Guard announced plans to terminate the United States stations, and, in 1977, the last United States weather ship was replaced by a newly-developed weather buoy.
By 1983, data was still being collected by ships M ("Mike"), R ("Romeo"), C ("Charlie"), and L ("Lima"), Because of high operating costs and budget issues, weather ship R ("Romeo") was recalled from the Bay of Biscay
Bay of Biscay
The Bay of Biscay is a gulf of the northeast Atlantic Ocean located south of the Celtic Sea. It lies along the western coast of France from Brest south to the Spanish border, and the northern coast of Spain west to Cape Ortegal, and is named in English after the province of Biscay, in the Spanish...
before the deployment of a weather buoy for the region. This recall was blamed for the minimal warning given in advance of the Great Storm of 1987. The last weather ship was Polarfront, known as weather station M ("Mike") at 66°N, 02°E, run by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute
Norwegian Meteorological Institute
Norwegian Meteorological Institute is the Norwegian national institute for weather forecasts.The three main offices are located in Oslo, Bergen and Tromsø. The Institute has around 500 employees and keeps around 650 paid observers of various kinds around the country...
. Polarfront was put out of operation 1 January 2010. Despite the loss of designated weather ships, weather observations from ships continue from a fleet of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation, which have increased in number over the decades.
Spaceflight planning
Images from satellites provide a resource for forecasting weather for NASA Space ShuttleSpace Shuttle
The Space Shuttle was a manned orbital rocket and spacecraft system operated by NASA on 135 missions from 1981 to 2011. The system combined rocket launch, orbital spacecraft, and re-entry spaceplane with modular add-ons...
launches and landings. Meteorologists analyze images to predict regions of cloud formation and dissipation. Special attention is paid to low clouds and convective
Convection
Convection is the movement of molecules within fluids and rheids. It cannot take place in solids, since neither bulk current flows nor significant diffusion can take place in solids....
cloud particularly cumulonimbus incus
Cumulonimbus incus
A cumulonimbus incus is a cumulonimbus cloud which has reached the level of stratospheric stability and has formed the characteristic flat, anvil-top shape...
clouds. Satellite imagery is used to ascertain cloud-top temperatures to analyze the potential for lightning. Certain types of imagery are valued for their ability to view fog and low clouds at night. Satellite imagery in the long term can help enhance the shuttle flight landing procedure.
Prior to shuttle launches or landings, pilots fly aircraft that provide cloud, wind, turbulence, visibility, and precipitation information. Aircraft are flown along the future flight path of the shuttle and observations are noted. This complements radar and satellite data and only provides information that is useful for short-term (up to four hours before launch or landing) but not long-term forecasting. Aerial reconnaissance often provides a more accurate assessment of weather conditions than radar or satellite imagery.
Weather reconnaissance is also provided by weather balloons.