Water supply in Hong Kong
Encyclopedia
Providing an adequate water supply
for Hong Kong
has always been difficult because there are few natural lake
s, river
s or substantial groundwater
sources and of its high population density
. About 70% of water demand thus is met by importing water from the Dongjiang River in neighboring Guangdong
province. In addition, freshwater demand is curtailed by the use of seawater for toilet flushing, using a separate distribution system.
, using it to store freshwater that had previously been lost to the sea during the rainy season. The reservoir was completed in 1963. It was followed by the construction of two other larger reservoirs of the same type. After the Plover Cove Reservoir
was completed in 1968 and there was no more water rationing until 1977. With the completion of the High Island Reservoir
in 1978, continuous supply was re-established. However, water rationing had to be reintroduced for the last time in 1980-81. Between 1965 and 1982 water had to be rationed 7 more times, often for many months with interruptions of up to 16 hours per day. In order to maintain the competitiveness of Hong Kong, rationing was only imposed on residential users while industry, the city's main water user, was exempted from rationing. However, rationing was finally overcome in 1982 thanks to water imports.
In 1960 Hong Kong began importing water from outside its borders through the Dongjiang - Shenzhen (Dongshen) Water Supply Scheme. After many extensions and upgrades the system today consists of a pipeline from from Qiaotou Town of Dongguan to a reservoir in Shenzhen next to Hong Kong. Water imports from the Pearl River
increased gradually from 23 million cubic meter/year under a 1960 agreement until a fifth agreement signed in 1989 which allowed for up to 1100 million cubic meter/year. Water imports thus played a crucial role in alleviating Hong Kong's water crisis, accounting for 70% of the territory's water supply in 1991. The People's Republic of China has never exercised the "water weapon" in its relationship with Hong Kong. China needed foreign exchange and between 1979 and 1991 alone Hong Kong paid China almost 4 billion Hong Kong Dollars (about US$ 500 million applying the 1991 exchange rate) for water imports.
had been one source of water supply in Hong Kong. A large desalination plant was commissioned in Lok On Pai in 1975, but was decommissioned again in 1981 because its operation was more expensive than importing water from Dongjiang.
reuse, rainwater harvesting
, as well as pilots for the reuse of reclaimed water
and desalination
. For example, it plans to provide reclaimed water from Shek Wu Hui Sewage Treatment Works for consumers in Sheung Shui
and Fanling
for toilet flushing and other non-potable uses, as well as pilot desalination plants in Tuen Mun
and Ap Lei Chau
.
, the Plover Cove Reservoir
and the High Island Reservoir
.
An interesting facet of the waterworks is the seawater supply systems with their separate networks of distribution mains, treatment facilities for screening and disinfection, pumping stations and service reservoirs. 80% of the population, including nearly all housing estates in Hong Kong Island
and other densely populated districts, receive sea water for flushing. Some remote districts in the New Territories and some outlying islands do not use the system. In 2010, an average of about 740 000 cubic metres of seawater was supplied each day, up from 330 000 cubic meters each day in 1990/91. Seawater is used to flush toilets and accounts for about 22% of total water use in 2008-09.
All figures are in million cubic metres
(at most treatment works), filtration
, pH
value correction, chlorination
and fluoridation. The water is soft in character and conforms in all respects — both chemically
and bacteriologically
— to standards for drinking water
set by the World Health Organization
. However residents often prefer to boil the water before drinking, although this is generally not necessary.
The main water treatment plants are:
for flushing toilets.
Water supply
Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations, community endeavours or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes...
for Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...
has always been difficult because there are few natural lake
Lake
A lake is a body of relatively still fresh or salt water of considerable size, localized in a basin, that is surrounded by land. Lakes are inland and not part of the ocean and therefore are distinct from lagoons, and are larger and deeper than ponds. Lakes can be contrasted with rivers or streams,...
s, river
River
A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, a lake, a sea, or another river. In a few cases, a river simply flows into the ground or dries up completely before reaching another body of water. Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including...
s or substantial groundwater
Groundwater
Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock...
sources and of its high population density
Population density
Population density is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and particularly to humans...
. About 70% of water demand thus is met by importing water from the Dongjiang River in neighboring Guangdong
Guangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
province. In addition, freshwater demand is curtailed by the use of seawater for toilet flushing, using a separate distribution system.
History
Water supply in Hong Kong initially came only from local sources, including numerous small dams built in the valleys of the territory.Water rationing
Until 1964 water rationing was a constant reality for Hong Kong residents, occurring for more than 300 days per year. The worst crisis occurred in 1963-64 when water was delivered only every 4 days for 4 hours each time. The city-state then embarked on a three-pronged approach to supply water to a population that increased from 1.7 million in 1945 to about 6 million in 1992. The approach involved seawater flushing, the construction of larger freshwater reservoirs in bays that used to be covered by the sea, and water imports from mainland China.Seawater flushing
In 1955 seawater was first used to flush toilets in a pilot scheme, followed by installation in all new houses and in selected districts beginning in 1957. In 1960 legislation was introduced to promote seawater flushing on a larger scale, followed by substantial investments in a separate network although the system was unpopular due to the need to build a separate plumbing network in each house. Seawater initially was sold, but from 1972 on it was provided for free and the costs of the system were recovered through the drinking water tariff. In 1991, about 65% of Hong Kong's households used seawater for flushing. By 1999, this percentage had increased to 79%. However, despite this success in the introduction of this unique system, it remained a partial solution that had been unable to resolve the water crisis of the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s by itself.Freshwater reservoirs in the sea
In 1957 construction began on the first dam to close off a natural sea bay, the Shek Pik ReservoirShek Pik Reservoir
Shek Pik Reservoir is a reservoir in Shek Pik on Lantau Island in Hong Kong. Built between 1957 and 1963, it has a storage capacity of 24 million cubic metres and is the third largest reservoir in Hong Kong after High Island Reservoir and Plover Cove Reservoir.-Location:Shek Pik Reservoir is...
, using it to store freshwater that had previously been lost to the sea during the rainy season. The reservoir was completed in 1963. It was followed by the construction of two other larger reservoirs of the same type. After the Plover Cove Reservoir
Plover Cove Reservoir
Plover Cove Reservoir , located within Plover Cove Country Park, in the northeastern New Territories, is the largest reservoir in Hong Kong in terms of area, and the second-largest in terms of volume. It was the first in the world to construct a lake from an arm of the ocean...
was completed in 1968 and there was no more water rationing until 1977. With the completion of the High Island Reservoir
High Island Reservoir
The High Island Reservoir , located in the far south eastern part of the Sai Kung Peninsula, was opened in 1978 helping to alleviate water shortage problems in Hong Kong. Its water capacity is approximately 273 million cubic metres...
in 1978, continuous supply was re-established. However, water rationing had to be reintroduced for the last time in 1980-81. Between 1965 and 1982 water had to be rationed 7 more times, often for many months with interruptions of up to 16 hours per day. In order to maintain the competitiveness of Hong Kong, rationing was only imposed on residential users while industry, the city's main water user, was exempted from rationing. However, rationing was finally overcome in 1982 thanks to water imports.
Water imports
Pearl River (China)
The Pearl River or less commonly, the "Guangdong River" or "Canton River" etc., , is an extensive river system in southern China. The name Pearl River is usually used as a catchment term to refer to the watersheds of the Xi Jiang , the Bei Jiang , and the Dong Jiang...
increased gradually from 23 million cubic meter/year under a 1960 agreement until a fifth agreement signed in 1989 which allowed for up to 1100 million cubic meter/year. Water imports thus played a crucial role in alleviating Hong Kong's water crisis, accounting for 70% of the territory's water supply in 1991. The People's Republic of China has never exercised the "water weapon" in its relationship with Hong Kong. China needed foreign exchange and between 1979 and 1991 alone Hong Kong paid China almost 4 billion Hong Kong Dollars (about US$ 500 million applying the 1991 exchange rate) for water imports.
Desalination intermezzo
DesalinationDesalination
Desalination, desalinization, or desalinisation refers to any of several processes that remove some amount of salt and other minerals from saline water...
had been one source of water supply in Hong Kong. A large desalination plant was commissioned in Lok On Pai in 1975, but was decommissioned again in 1981 because its operation was more expensive than importing water from Dongjiang.
Protecting raw water quality
The pollution of raw water supplied to Hong Kong became an increasing concern that triggered a variety of activities to protect the quality of raw water. In 1998 the intake of the water pipeline was moved further upstream on the Dongjiang River where water quality was better. In 2003 a 83km dedicated aqueduct was completed, thus reducing the vulnerability of the supply to pollution. Furthermore wastewater treatment plants were constructed in settlements in the Dongjiang basin and polluting industries were removed, thus protecting the water at the source. In 2006 a Water Supply Agreement has been signed with Guangdong Province for "flexible" supply of Dongjiang water. The agreement allows for less water to be withdrawn when reservoirs in Hong Kong are full, and more water to be withdrawn in times of drought, while the annual payment remains the same. Under the new agreement, Hong Kong pays fixed lump sums of HK$2,959 million, HK$3,146 million and HK$3,344 million for 2009, 2010 and 2011 respectively.Total water management
In the 2003 the government of Hong Kong announced what it called a "total water management programme". In 2005 a study was commissioned whose results were broadly discussed. Based on the study the government reaffirmed its approach to water management, but also started new initiatives concerning leakage reduction, water conservation, greywaterGreywater
Greywater is wastewater generated from domestic activities such as laundry, dishwashing, and bathing, which can be recycled on-site for uses such as landscape irrigation and constructed wetlands...
reuse, rainwater harvesting
Rainwater harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is the accumulating and storing of rainwater for reuse before it reaches the aquifer. It has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, water for irrigation, as well as other typical uses. Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses and local institutions can...
, as well as pilots for the reuse of reclaimed water
Reclaimed water
Reclaimed water or recycled water, is former wastewater that is treated to remove solids and certain impurities, and used in sustainable landscaping irrigation or to recharge groundwater aquifers...
and desalination
Desalination
Desalination, desalinization, or desalinisation refers to any of several processes that remove some amount of salt and other minerals from saline water...
. For example, it plans to provide reclaimed water from Shek Wu Hui Sewage Treatment Works for consumers in Sheung Shui
Sheung Shui
Sheung Shui is an area in New Territories, Hong Kong. Sheung Shui Town, a part of this area, is part of the Fanling-Sheung Shui New Town in the North District of Hong Kong. Fanling Town is to its southeast.-History:...
and Fanling
Fanling
Fanling , also known as Fan Ling and Fan Leng, is an area in the New Territories of Hong Kong. Administratively, it is part of the North District...
for toilet flushing and other non-potable uses, as well as pilot desalination plants in Tuen Mun
Tuen Mun
Tuen Mun is a town near the mouth of Tuen Mun River and Castle Peak Bay in the New Territories, Hong Kong. It was one of the earliest settlements in Hong Kong which can be dated back to the Neolithic period. In the more recent past, it was home to many Tanka fishermen who gathered at the Castle...
and Ap Lei Chau
Ap Lei Chau
Ap Lei Chau , or Aberdeen Island, is an island of Hong Kong, located south-west of Hong Kong Island, next to Aberdeen Harbour and Aberdeen Channel, with an area of 1.30 km². Administratively, it is part of Southern District. Ap Lei Chau is the third most densely populated island in the world.-...
.
Sources of water
Hong Kong's three main sources of water are supply from Guangdong Province; internal freshwater sources stored in reservoirs; and seawater used for flushing toilets. Dongjiang is Hong Kong's major source of water. The designed maximum capacity of the supply system is 1.1 billion cubic metres per annum. The supply contract, costing HK$2 billion a year, has helped the city's economy grow without the interruption of water shortage, although the payment constitutes only 0.15 per cent of Hong Kong's HK$1.3 trillion gross domestic product. About one-third of Hong Kong's 1,098 square kilometres has been developed as water catchments including both reservoirs behind dams on land and three 'reservoirs in the sea', the Shek Pik ReservoirShek Pik Reservoir
Shek Pik Reservoir is a reservoir in Shek Pik on Lantau Island in Hong Kong. Built between 1957 and 1963, it has a storage capacity of 24 million cubic metres and is the third largest reservoir in Hong Kong after High Island Reservoir and Plover Cove Reservoir.-Location:Shek Pik Reservoir is...
, the Plover Cove Reservoir
Plover Cove Reservoir
Plover Cove Reservoir , located within Plover Cove Country Park, in the northeastern New Territories, is the largest reservoir in Hong Kong in terms of area, and the second-largest in terms of volume. It was the first in the world to construct a lake from an arm of the ocean...
and the High Island Reservoir
High Island Reservoir
The High Island Reservoir , located in the far south eastern part of the Sai Kung Peninsula, was opened in 1978 helping to alleviate water shortage problems in Hong Kong. Its water capacity is approximately 273 million cubic metres...
.
An interesting facet of the waterworks is the seawater supply systems with their separate networks of distribution mains, treatment facilities for screening and disinfection, pumping stations and service reservoirs. 80% of the population, including nearly all housing estates in Hong Kong Island
Hong Kong Island
Hong Kong Island is an island in the southern part of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. It has a population of 1,289,500 and its population density is 16,390/km², as of 2008...
and other densely populated districts, receive sea water for flushing. Some remote districts in the New Territories and some outlying islands do not use the system. In 2010, an average of about 740 000 cubic metres of seawater was supplied each day, up from 330 000 cubic meters each day in 1990/91. Seawater is used to flush toilets and accounts for about 22% of total water use in 2008-09.
Consumption
More than 70% of Hong Kong's water is used by industry and services, particularly the textile, metal-working and electronics sectors in manufacturing, and hotels and restaurants in services.All figures are in million cubic metres
| Fresh Water | 2003 - 2004 | 2004 - 2005 | 2005 - 2006 | 2006 - 2007 | 2007 - 2008 | 2008 - 2009 |
| Annual | 963.99 | 954.62 | 966.92 | 963.59 | 950 | 957.31 |
| Daily Average | 2.63 | 2.62 | 2.65 | 2.64 | 2.60 | 2.62 |
| Highest Daily | 2.91 | 2.79 | 2.82 | 2.84 | 2.81 | 2.86 |
| Seawater | 2003 - 2004 | 2004 - 2005 | 2005 - 2006 | 2006 - 2007 | 2007 - 2008 | 2008 - 2009 |
| Annual | 244.31 | 259.83 | 261.63 | 261.66 | 274.23 | 271.08 |
| Daily Average | 0.67 | 0.71 | 0.72 | 0.72 | 0.75 | 0.74 |
Water infrastructure
Hong Kong's water infrastructure consists of the following water treatment plants, pumping stations and reservoirs.Water treatment
The supply is fully treated by chemical coagulation, sedimentationSedimentation
Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained, and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them: these forces can be due to gravity, centrifugal acceleration...
(at most treatment works), filtration
Filtration
Filtration is commonly the mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids from fluids by interposing a medium through which only the fluid can pass...
, pH
PH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...
value correction, chlorination
Chlorination
Chlorination is the process of adding the element chlorine to water as a method of water purification to make it fit for human consumption as drinking water...
and fluoridation. The water is soft in character and conforms in all respects — both chemically
Chemistry
Chemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds....
and bacteriologically
Bacteriology
Bacteriology is the study of bacteria. This subdivision of microbiology involves the identification, classification, and characterization of bacterial species...
— to standards for drinking water
Drinking water
Drinking water or potable water is water pure enough to be consumed or used with low risk of immediate or long term harm. In most developed countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard, even though only a very small proportion is actually...
set by the World Health Organization
World Health Organization
The World Health Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of its predecessor, the Health...
. However residents often prefer to boil the water before drinking, although this is generally not necessary.
The main water treatment plants are:
- Sha Tin Water Treatment Works, the largest water treatment works in Hong Kong in terms of daily output capacity
- Pak Kong
- Au Tau
- Tsuen Wan
- Tuen Mun
- Tai Po
- Yau Kom Tau
- Ma On Shan
- Ngau Tam Mei
Pumping Stations
- Muk Wu No.2 & No. 3
- Tai Po Tau, Tai Po Tau No.2, No.3 & No.4
- Tai Mei Tuk & Tai Mei Tuk No.2
- Harbour Island
Reservoirs
The total storage capacity of Hong Kong's reservoirs is 586 million cubic metres. The reservoirs and their storage are tabulated below:| Reservoir (Year on reservoir) | Reservoir supply storage m³ |
| Pok Fu Lam Pok Fu Lam Reservoir Pok Fu Lam Reservoir is the first reservoir in Hong Kong. It is located in a valley in Pok Fu Lam. It is actually two reservoirs with capacity of 260 km³.-History:... 1877 |
231,000 |
| Tai Tam Tai Tam Reservoirs The Tai Tam Reservoirs , also known as Tai Tam Reservoir Group, is a group of reservoirs located in the Tai Tam Country Park in the eastern part of Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong.The reservoirs consist of:* Tai Tam Upper Reservoir ,... 1889 |
1,490,000 |
| Tai Tam Byewash Tai Tam Reservoirs The Tai Tam Reservoirs , also known as Tai Tam Reservoir Group, is a group of reservoirs located in the Tai Tam Country Park in the eastern part of Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong.The reservoirs consist of:* Tai Tam Upper Reservoir ,... 1904 |
80,000 |
| Tai Tam Intermediate Tai Tam Reservoirs The Tai Tam Reservoirs , also known as Tai Tam Reservoir Group, is a group of reservoirs located in the Tai Tam Country Park in the eastern part of Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong.The reservoirs consist of:* Tai Tam Upper Reservoir ,... 1907 |
686,000 |
| Kowloon Kowloon Group of Reservoirs The Kowloon Group of Reservoirs is located in the Kam Shan Country Park, north of Kowloon, Hong Kong. They include:* Kowloon Reservoir * Kowloon Byewash Reservoir* Kowloon Reception Reservoir... 1910 |
1,578,000 |
| Tai Tam Tuk Tai Tam Reservoirs The Tai Tam Reservoirs , also known as Tai Tam Reservoir Group, is a group of reservoirs located in the Tai Tam Country Park in the eastern part of Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong.The reservoirs consist of:* Tai Tam Upper Reservoir ,... 1917 |
6,047,000 |
| Shek Lei Pui Shek Lei Pui Reservoir Shek Lei Pui Reservoir is a reservoir in Kam Shan Country Park, Sha Tin, New Territories, Hong Kong. It is a part of Kowloon Reservoir.Formerly Shek Lei Pui Village, the construction works of the reservoir began in 1923 and completed in 1925... 1925 |
374,000 |
| Kowloon Reception Kowloon Group of Reservoirs The Kowloon Group of Reservoirs is located in the Kam Shan Country Park, north of Kowloon, Hong Kong. They include:* Kowloon Reservoir * Kowloon Byewash Reservoir* Kowloon Reception Reservoir... 1926 |
121,000 |
| Aberdeen Aberdeen Reservoirs The Aberdeen Reservoirs are a group of two reservoirs, consisting of the Upper Aberdeen Reservoir and the Lower Aberdeen Reservoir , in Aberdeen, Hong Kong.-History:... (2 Res.) 1931 |
1,259,000 |
| Kowloon Byewash Kowloon Group of Reservoirs The Kowloon Group of Reservoirs is located in the Kam Shan Country Park, north of Kowloon, Hong Kong. They include:* Kowloon Reservoir * Kowloon Byewash Reservoir* Kowloon Reception Reservoir... 1931 |
800,000 |
| Shing Mun (Jubilee) Shing Mun Reservoir Shing Mun Reservoir is a reservoir in Hong Kong. It is located in Shing Mun, the area between Tsuen Wan and Sha Tin, in the New Territories.-History:Several hundreds years ago, the area around the reservoir was a dense forest with very few inhabitants... 1936 |
13,279,000 |
| Tai Lam Chung Tai Lam Chung Reservoir Tai Lam Chung Reservoir is a reservoir in Tai Lam Country Park, Tai Lam Chung, Tuen Mun, New Territories, Hong Kong. It is the first reservoir built in Hong Kong after the Second World War. Formed by a main dam across the Tai Lam Chung Valley, the construction work of the reservoir commenced in... 1957 |
20,490,000 |
| Shek Pik Shek Pik Reservoir Shek Pik Reservoir is a reservoir in Shek Pik on Lantau Island in Hong Kong. Built between 1957 and 1963, it has a storage capacity of 24 million cubic metres and is the third largest reservoir in Hong Kong after High Island Reservoir and Plover Cove Reservoir.-Location:Shek Pik Reservoir is... 1963 |
24,461,000 |
| Lower Shing Mun Lower Shing Mun Reservoir Lower Shing Mun Reservoir is a reservoir outside Shing Mun Country Park and the downstream of the dam of the Shing Mun Reservoir in Sha Tin District. Two vehicular bridges span over the valley between the Shing Mun Reservoir and the Lower Shing Mun Reservoir... 1965 |
4,299,000 |
| Plover Cove Plover Cove Reservoir Plover Cove Reservoir , located within Plover Cove Country Park, in the northeastern New Territories, is the largest reservoir in Hong Kong in terms of area, and the second-largest in terms of volume. It was the first in the world to construct a lake from an arm of the ocean... 1968 |
229,729,000 |
| High Island High Island Reservoir The High Island Reservoir , located in the far south eastern part of the Sai Kung Peninsula, was opened in 1978 helping to alleviate water shortage problems in Hong Kong. Its water capacity is approximately 273 million cubic metres... 1978 |
281,124,000 |
Responsibility for water supply
The Water Supplies Department is responsible to collect, store, purify and distribute potable water to consumers, and provide adequate new resources and installations to maintain a satisfactory standard of water supply. The department also supplies seawaterSeawater
Seawater is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% . This means that every kilogram of seawater has approximately of dissolved salts . The average density of seawater at the ocean surface is 1.025 g/ml...
for flushing toilets.
See also
- Water supply and sanitation in China
- Sha Tin Sewage Treatment WorksSha Tin Sewage Treatment WorksSha Tin Sewage Treatment Works is a sewage treatment facility in Hong Kong. It is located in Ma Liu Shui, Sha Tin, along the Shing Mun River, at its mouth into Sha Tin Hoi ....
- Engineer's Office of the Former Pumping StationEngineer's Office of the Former Pumping StationThe Engineer's Office of the Former Pumping Station, Water Supplies Department , sometimes called "The Red Brick House" , is located at No. 344 Shanghai Street, in Yau Ma Tei, Hong Kong. It has been classified as a Grade I historical building since 2000 by the Antiquities Advisory Board in view of...
(historical building)