Squatting position
Encyclopedia
Squatting is a posture where the weight of the body is on the feet
(as with standing) but the knees are bent either fully (full or deep squat) or partially (partial, half, semi, parallel or monkey squat). In contrast, sitting
, involves taking the weight of the body, at least in part, on the buttocks against the ground or a horizontal object such as a chair seat
. Crouching may involve squatting or kneeling
. It is possible to squat with one leg and assume another position (such as kneeling) with the other leg. In adults, squatting (including the use of the squat toilet
) is more common in Asia
n cultures.
squat instinctively as a continuous movement from standing up whenever they want to lower themselves to ground level. One and two year olds can commonly be seen playing in a stable squatting position, with feet wide apart and bottom not quite touching the floor, although at first they need to hold onto something to stand up again.
or kneel.
Most western adults cannot place their heels flat on the ground when squatting because of shortened Achilles tendon
s largely caused by habitually:
For this reason the squatting position is usually not sustainable for them for more than a few minutes as heels-up squatting is a less stable position than heels-down squatting.
Catcher
s in baseball
and wicket-keeper
s in cricket
assume full squatting positions.
positions amongst primitive cultures to the Western world. They frequently use squatting, standing, kneeling
and all-fours
positions, often in a sequence.
Various people have promoted the adoption of these alternative birthing positions, particularly squatting, for Western countries, such as Grantly Dick-Read
, Janet Balaskas
, Moysés Paciornik
and Hugo Sabatino
. The adoption of these alternative positions is also promoted by the natural childbirth
movement.
The squatting position gives a greater increase of pressure in the pelvic cavity with minimal muscular effort. The birth canal will open 20 to 30% more in a squat than in any other position. It is recommended for the second stage of childbirth.
As most Western adults find it difficult to squat with heels down, compromises are often made such as putting a support under the elevated heels or another person supporting the squatter.
, squatting is the one way for a female to direct the urine stream (although many women find that they can do so standing up). If done this way, the urine will go forward downwards. Some females use one or both hands to focus the direction of the urine stream, which is more easily achieved while in the squatting position.
Acceptability of outdoor urination in a public place other than at a public urinal varies with the situation and with customs. Typically, many American males do this standing up, while females squat. However, among the Tuareg tribe in Africa, and in many other cultures the males tend to squat while the females stand.
The choice of urination position, in any case, remains a highly personal one, and depends on the particular nature of the individual's body shape (as not all penises are shaped the same as all other penises; ditto for vulvae).
The squatting defecation
posture involves squatting by standing with knees and hips sharply bent and the buttocks suspended near the ground. Squat toilet
s are designed to facilitate this posture. It is more widespread in the developing world than in the Western world
.
, the squat is an exercise that trains primarily the muscle
s of the thigh
s, hips and buttocks
, as well as strengthening the bone
s, ligament
s and insertion of the tendon
s throughout the lower body. Squats are considered a vital exercise for increasing the strength and size
of the legs and buttocks.
, is a yoga pose
.
The pose is a squat with heels flat on the floor and hip-width apart (or slightly wider if necessary), toes pointing out on a diagonal. The torso is brought forward between the thighs, elbows are braced against the inside of the knees, and the hands press together in front of the chest in Añjali Mudrā
.
can keep the profile as low as a regular crawl
.
developed the idea that the use of the natural squatting position, in particular for defecation, protects the natives of Africa and Asia from various illnesses:
Largely stemming from this, research is now increasingly being done into various squatting benefits:
. It increases pressure on the left side of the heart, decreasing the right to left shunt
thus decreasing the amount of deoxygenated blood entering the systemic circulation.
and talar
articular
surfaces of skeletons, which result from contact between the two bones during hyperdorsiflexion
, have been used as markers to indicate if that person habitually squatted. Babies are born with squatting facets but they usually disappear over time if that person does not habitually squat as he or she grows older, because of remoulding of the bone.
Squatting as a dynamic exercise
Squatting in childbirth
Health effects of squatting
Circulation
Foot
The foot is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates. It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion. In many animals with feet, the foot is a separate organ at the terminal part of the leg made up of one or more segments or bones, generally including claws...
(as with standing) but the knees are bent either fully (full or deep squat) or partially (partial, half, semi, parallel or monkey squat). In contrast, sitting
Sitting
Sitting is a rest position supported by the buttocks or thighs where the torso is more or less upright.- Sitting on the floor :The most common way of sitting on the floor involves bending the knees...
, involves taking the weight of the body, at least in part, on the buttocks against the ground or a horizontal object such as a chair seat
Chair
A chair is a stable, raised surface used to sit on, commonly for use by one person. Chairs are most often supported by four legs and have a back; however, a chair can have three legs or could have a different shape depending on the criteria of the chair specifications. A chair without a back or...
. Crouching may involve squatting or kneeling
Kneeling
Kneeling is a human position in which the weight is distributed on the knees and feet on a surface close to horizontal.The position of kneeling may be assumed for practical reasons and for reasons of social or religious custom.- Practical reasons :...
. It is possible to squat with one leg and assume another position (such as kneeling) with the other leg. In adults, squatting (including the use of the squat toilet
Squat toilet
A squat toilet is a toilet used by squatting, rather than sitting. There are several types of squat toilets, but they all consist essentially of a hole in the ground...
) is more common in Asia
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
n cultures.
Young children
Young childrenToddler
A toddler is a young child, usually defined as being between the ages of one and three. Registered nurse, midwife and author, Robin Barker, states 'Any time from eight months onwards your baby will begin to realise he is a separate person from you...
squat instinctively as a continuous movement from standing up whenever they want to lower themselves to ground level. One and two year olds can commonly be seen playing in a stable squatting position, with feet wide apart and bottom not quite touching the floor, although at first they need to hold onto something to stand up again.
Resting position
Full squatting involves resting one's weight on the feet with the buttocks resting on the backs of the calves. It may be used as a posture for resting or working at ground level particularly where the ground is too dirty or wet to sitSIT
- Organizations :* Singapore Improvement Trust, a government public-housing organization* Society of Instrument Technology, a British learned society* Strategic Information Technology, a banking-software company...
or kneel.
Most western adults cannot place their heels flat on the ground when squatting because of shortened Achilles tendon
Achilles tendon
The Achilles tendon , also known as the calcaneal tendon or the tendo calcaneus, is a tendon of the posterior leg. It serves to attach the plantaris, gastrocnemius and soleus muscles to the calcaneus bone.- Anatomy :The Achilles is the tendonous extension of 3 muscles in the lower leg:...
s largely caused by habitually:
- sitting on chairs or seats
- wearing shoes with heels (especially high heels)
For this reason the squatting position is usually not sustainable for them for more than a few minutes as heels-up squatting is a less stable position than heels-down squatting.
Catcher
Catcher
Catcher is a position for a baseball or softball player. When a batter takes his turn to hit, the catcher crouches behind home plate, in front of the umpire, and receives the ball from the pitcher. This is a catcher's primary duty, but he is also called upon to master many other skills in order to...
s in baseball
Baseball
Baseball is a bat-and-ball sport played between two teams of nine players each. The aim is to score runs by hitting a thrown ball with a bat and touching a series of four bases arranged at the corners of a ninety-foot diamond...
and wicket-keeper
Wicket-keeper
The wicket-keeper in the sport of cricket is the player on the fielding side who stands behind the wicket or stumps being guarded by the batsman currently on strike...
s in cricket
Cricket
Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of 11 players on an oval-shaped field, at the centre of which is a rectangular 22-yard long pitch. One team bats, trying to score as many runs as possible while the other team bowls and fields, trying to dismiss the batsmen and thus limit the...
assume full squatting positions.
Childbirth position
Engelmann's seminal work "Labor among primitive peoples" publicised the childbirthChildbirth
Childbirth is the culmination of a human pregnancy or gestation period with the birth of one or more newborn infants from a woman's uterus...
positions amongst primitive cultures to the Western world. They frequently use squatting, standing, kneeling
Kneeling
Kneeling is a human position in which the weight is distributed on the knees and feet on a surface close to horizontal.The position of kneeling may be assumed for practical reasons and for reasons of social or religious custom.- Practical reasons :...
and all-fours
All-Fours
All Fours, also known as High-Low-Jack or Seven Up, is an English tavern trick-taking card game that was popular as a gambling game until the end of the 19th century...
positions, often in a sequence.
Various people have promoted the adoption of these alternative birthing positions, particularly squatting, for Western countries, such as Grantly Dick-Read
Grantly Dick-Read
Grantly Dick-Read was a British obstetrician who is regarded by many as the father of natural childbirth movement. He dedicated his life to educating expectant parents about the benefits of giving birth naturally, with as little intervention from obstetricians and health professionals as possible...
, Janet Balaskas
Janet Balaskas
Janet Balaskas is an author, founder of the Active Birth Movement, and childbirth educator. She is perhaps known best for her advocacy of active birth where the woman is free to move during labour, rather than being placed into stirrups or the lithotomy position...
, Moysés Paciornik
Moysés Paciornik
Moysés Goldstein Paciornik was a physician born in the city of Curitiba in the Paraná state of Brazil. He graduated in Medicine in 1938. In 1959 he founded the Paranaense Center for Medical Research, which he was director...
and Hugo Sabatino
Hugo Sabatino
Hugo Sabatino is an Argentine-Brazilian physician, scientist and university professor affiliated to the Medical School of the State University of Campinas, in Campinas, State of São Paulo. Dr. Sabatino's main specialty is obstetrics. He has contributed to a new form of natural childbirth delivery...
. The adoption of these alternative positions is also promoted by the natural childbirth
Natural childbirth
Natural Childbirth is a philosophy of childbirth that is based on the notion that women who are adequately prepared are innately able to give birth without routine medical interventions. Natural childbirth arose in opposition to the techno-medical model of childbirth that has recently gained...
movement.
The squatting position gives a greater increase of pressure in the pelvic cavity with minimal muscular effort. The birth canal will open 20 to 30% more in a squat than in any other position. It is recommended for the second stage of childbirth.
As most Western adults find it difficult to squat with heels down, compromises are often made such as putting a support under the elevated heels or another person supporting the squatter.
Sexual position
In the woman on top sexual position (also known as cowgirl), the woman commonly assumes a squatting position over the man, sometimes referred to as a frog squat.Female urination position
When not urinating into a toiletToilet
A toilet is a sanitation fixture used primarily for the disposal of human excrement, often found in a small room referred to as a toilet/bathroom/lavatory...
, squatting is the one way for a female to direct the urine stream (although many women find that they can do so standing up). If done this way, the urine will go forward downwards. Some females use one or both hands to focus the direction of the urine stream, which is more easily achieved while in the squatting position.
Acceptability of outdoor urination in a public place other than at a public urinal varies with the situation and with customs. Typically, many American males do this standing up, while females squat. However, among the Tuareg tribe in Africa, and in many other cultures the males tend to squat while the females stand.
The choice of urination position, in any case, remains a highly personal one, and depends on the particular nature of the individual's body shape (as not all penises are shaped the same as all other penises; ditto for vulvae).
Defecation position
Defecation
Defecation is the final act of digestion by which organisms eliminate solid, semisolid or liquid waste material from the digestive tract via the anus. Waves of muscular contraction known as peristalsis in the walls of the colon move fecal matter through the digestive tract towards the rectum...
posture involves squatting by standing with knees and hips sharply bent and the buttocks suspended near the ground. Squat toilet
Squat toilet
A squat toilet is a toilet used by squatting, rather than sitting. There are several types of squat toilets, but they all consist essentially of a hole in the ground...
s are designed to facilitate this posture. It is more widespread in the developing world than in the Western world
Western world
The Western world, also known as the West and the Occident , is a term referring to the countries of Western Europe , the countries of the Americas, as well all countries of Northern and Central Europe, Australia and New Zealand...
.
Dynamic exercise
In strength trainingStrength training
Strength training is the use of resistance to muscular contraction to build the strength, anaerobic endurance, and size of skeletal muscles. There are many different methods of strength training, the most common being the use of gravity or elastic/hydraulic forces to oppose muscle contraction...
, the squat is an exercise that trains primarily the muscle
Muscle
Muscle is a contractile tissue of animals and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their function is to...
s of the thigh
Thigh
In humans the thigh is the area between the pelvis and the knee. Anatomically, it is part of the lower limb.The single bone in the thigh is called the femur...
s, hips and buttocks
Gluteal muscles
The gluteal muscles are the three muscles that make up the buttocks: the gluteus maximus muscle, gluteus medius muscle and gluteus minimus muscle.-The gluteal muscles:...
, as well as strengthening the bone
Bone
Bones are rigid organs that constitute part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue...
s, ligament
Ligament
In anatomy, the term ligament is used to denote any of three types of structures. Most commonly, it refers to fibrous tissue that connects bones to other bones and is also known as articular ligament, articular larua, fibrous ligament, or true ligament.Ligament can also refer to:* Peritoneal...
s and insertion of the tendon
Tendon
A tendon is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone and is capable of withstanding tension. Tendons are similar to ligaments and fasciae as they are all made of collagen except that ligaments join one bone to another bone, and fasciae connect muscles to other...
s throughout the lower body. Squats are considered a vital exercise for increasing the strength and size
Muscle hypertrophy
Muscle hypertrophy is an increase in the size of muscle cells. It differs from muscle hyperplasia, which is the formation of new muscle cells.-Hypertrophy stimuli:A range of stimuli can increase the volume of muscle cells...
of the legs and buttocks.
Yoga squatting posture
Malasana, also known as Yoga Squat or the Garland PoseGarland Pose
Garland Pose, Malasana , or Yoga Squat is an asana.- Etymology :The name comes from the Sanskrit words mala meaning "garland" and asana meaning "posture" or "seat".- Description :...
, is a yoga pose
Asana
Asana is a body position, typically associated with the practice of Yoga, originally identified as a mastery of sitting still, with the spine as a conduit of biodynamic union...
.
The pose is a squat with heels flat on the floor and hip-width apart (or slightly wider if necessary), toes pointing out on a diagonal. The torso is brought forward between the thighs, elbows are braced against the inside of the knees, and the hands press together in front of the chest in Añjali Mudrā
Añjali Mudrā
Añjali Mudrā or Pranamasana is a hand gesture which is practiced throughout Asia. It is used as a sign of respect and a greeting in India and amongst yoga practitioners and adherents of similar traditions...
.
Partial squat
A partial squat is an intermediate stage between standing and full squatting, that is, standing but with the knees bent. (In contrast, stooping involves bending at the waist rather than just the hips and knees). This may be used in a variety of contexts often as a "ready for action" posture:- the batsman's posture in cricketCricketCricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of 11 players on an oval-shaped field, at the centre of which is a rectangular 22-yard long pitch. One team bats, trying to score as many runs as possible while the other team bowls and fields, trying to dismiss the batsmen and thus limit the...
when waiting for a delivery. - waiting to receive a serve in tennisTennisTennis is a sport usually played between two players or between two teams of two players each . Each player uses a racket that is strung to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over a net into the opponent's court. Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society at all...
- used in the Alexander techniqueAlexander TechniqueThe Alexander Technique teaches the ability to improve physical postural habits, particularly those that have become ingrained and conditioned responses...
, as "the monkey squat" also known as the "position of mechanical advantage" - ready for action in sumo wrestling.
- to avoid back strain it is important to bend the knees whenever you lift a heavy object.
- plié in balletBalletBallet is a type of performance dance, that originated in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th century, and which was further developed in France and Russia as a concert dance form. The early portions preceded the invention of the proscenium stage and were presented in large chambers with...
is a type of partial squat balanced on the toes only and the legs turned outwards. (The grand plié has the thighs parallel to the ground like a parallel squat or demi-plie where the thighs are at about a 45% angle to the ground). - the parallel squat, often used in weight training, is just short of a full squat where the thighs are parallel to the ground.
- Monkey Kung FuMonkey Kung FuMonkey Kung Fu, or Monkey Fist , is a Chinese martial art which utilizes ape or monkey-like movements as part of its technique.There are a number of independently developed systems of monkey kung fu...
a Chinese martial art which utilizes apeApeApes are Old World anthropoid mammals, more specifically a clade of tailless catarrhine primates, belonging to the biological superfamily Hominoidea. The apes are native to Africa and South-east Asia, although in relatively recent times humans have spread all over the world...
or monkeyMonkeyA monkey is a primate, either an Old World monkey or a New World monkey. There are about 260 known living species of monkey. Many are arboreal, although there are species that live primarily on the ground, such as baboons. Monkeys are generally considered to be intelligent. Unlike apes, monkeys...
-like movements as part of its technique. - a Besti squatBesti squatA Besti squat is a figure skating move. It is similar to the spread eagle in that the skater travels along an edge with both skates on the ice, the toes turned out to the sides and the heels facing each other...
is a figure skatingFigure skatingFigure skating is an Olympic sport in which individuals, pairs, or groups perform spins, jumps, footwork and other intricate and challenging moves on ice skates. Figure skaters compete at various levels from beginner up to the Olympic level , and at local, national, and international competitions...
move.
Lunge
A lunge is a variation of the partial squat where a leg is moved forwards with the knee bent but the other remains straight thus moving the upper body forward in line with the bent knee. For example:- the snooker playing posture
- the fencing lungeLunge (fencing)The lunge is the fundamental offensive fencing technique used with all three fencing weapons: foil, épée and sabre. It is common to all contemporary fencing styles.-Background:A number of things happen at almost the same time during the execution of a lunge:...
- the lungeLunge (exercise)The lunge is a strength training exercise that is used to strengthen the quadriceps muscles, gluteal muscles and the muscles comprising the "hamstrings", the semitendinosus, the semimembranosus, and the biceps femoris...
as a weight trainingWeight trainingWeight training is a common type of strength training for developing the strength and size of skeletal muscles. It uses the weight force of gravity to oppose the force generated by muscle through concentric or eccentric contraction...
or strength trainingStrength trainingStrength training is the use of resistance to muscular contraction to build the strength, anaerobic endurance, and size of skeletal muscles. There are many different methods of strength training, the most common being the use of gravity or elastic/hydraulic forces to oppose muscle contraction...
exercise.
Walking while squatting (stalking or prowling)
Stalking or prowling is essentially walking while in or close to a full squat. This is designed to be a walk that maintains a low profile. A good soldierSoldier
A soldier is a member of the land component of national armed forces; whereas a soldier hired for service in a foreign army would be termed a mercenary...
can keep the profile as low as a regular crawl
Crawling (human)
Babies usually learn to crawl before they develop walking skills.Crawls can refer to the specific gait or to any gait involving the arms and legs.Crawling is used mainly:...
.
Positive health effects
In the 1970s, Denis Parsons BurkittDenis Parsons Burkitt
Denis Parsons Burkitt , surgeon, was born in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh, Ireland. He was the son of James Parsons Burkitt. Aged eleven he lost his right eye in an accident. He attended Portora Royal School in Enniskillen and Dean Close School, England...
developed the idea that the use of the natural squatting position, in particular for defecation, protects the natives of Africa and Asia from various illnesses:
- hiatus herniaHiatus herniaA hiatus hernia or hiatal hernia is the protrusion of the upper part of the stomach into the thorax through a tear or weakness in the diaphragm.- Classification :There are two major kinds of hiatus hernia:...
- hemorrhoids
- colon cancer
- varicose veinsVaricose veinsVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and tortuous. The term commonly refers to the veins on the leg, although varicose veins can occur elsewhere. Veins have leaflet valves to prevent blood from flowing backwards . Leg muscles pump the veins to return blood to the heart, against the...
- deep vein thrombosisDeep vein thrombosisDeep vein thrombosis is the formation of a blood clot in a deep vein. Deep vein thrombosis commonly affects the leg veins or the deep veins of the pelvis. Occasionally the veins of the arm are affected...
Largely stemming from this, research is now increasingly being done into various squatting benefits:
- Beneficial spinal stretch
- Optimum birthing position
- Alleviation of hemorrhoids
- Avoiding colon cancer
- Avoiding varicose veinsVaricose veinsVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and tortuous. The term commonly refers to the veins on the leg, although varicose veins can occur elsewhere. Veins have leaflet valves to prevent blood from flowing backwards . Leg muscles pump the veins to return blood to the heart, against the...
- Reducing hip osteoarthritisOsteoarthritisOsteoarthritis also known as degenerative arthritis or degenerative joint disease, is a group of mechanical abnormalities involving degradation of joints, including articular cartilage and subchondral bone. Symptoms may include joint pain, tenderness, stiffness, locking, and sometimes an effusion...
Tetralogy of Fallot
Older children will often squat during a Tetralogy of Fallot "tet spell". This increases systemic vascular resistance and allows for a temporary reversal of the shuntCardiac shunt
Cardiac shunts is when the blood flow follows a pattern in the heart that deviates from the normal circuit of the circulatory system. It may be described as right-left, left-to-right or bidirectional, or as systemic-to-pulmonary or pulmonary-to-systemic. The direction may be controlled by left...
. It increases pressure on the left side of the heart, decreasing the right to left shunt
Right-to-left shunt
A right-to-left shunt is a cardiac shunt which allows blood to flow from the right heart to the left heart. This terminology is used both for the abnormal state in humans and for normal physiological shunts in reptiles...
thus decreasing the amount of deoxygenated blood entering the systemic circulation.
Negative health effects
- Knee osteoarthritis - There is increased incidence of knee osteoarthritis amongst squatters who squat for hours a day for many years.
- Bilateral peroneal nerve palsy - There is evidence that sustained squatting may cause bilateral peroneal nerve palsyPalsyIn medicine, palsy is the paralysis of a body part, often accompanied by loss of sensation and by uncontrolled body movements, such as shaking. Medical conditions involving palsy include cerebral palsy , brachial palsy , and Bell's palsy ....
. A common name for this affliction is squatter's palsy although there may be reasons other than squatting for this to occur. - Stroke - A study shows that squatting for defecation may trigger a strokeStrokeA stroke, previously known medically as a cerebrovascular accident , is the rapidly developing loss of brain function due to disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. This can be due to ischemia caused by blockage , or a hemorrhage...
. However, the study did not compare squatting with sitting for defecation, and did not measure the blood pressure of subjects straining on a western toilet.
Squatting facets
The existence of squatting facets on the distal tibiaTibia
The tibia , shinbone, or shankbone is the larger and stronger of the two bones in the leg below the knee in vertebrates , and connects the knee with the ankle bones....
and talar
Talus bone
-External links:* *...
articular
surfaces of skeletons, which result from contact between the two bones during hyperdorsiflexion
Dorsiflexion
Dorsiflexion is the movement which decreases the angle between the dorsum of the foot and the leg, so that the toes are brought closer to the shin. The movement moving in opposite directions is called plantarflexion...
, have been used as markers to indicate if that person habitually squatted. Babies are born with squatting facets but they usually disappear over time if that person does not habitually squat as he or she grows older, because of remoulding of the bone.
Further reading
Squatting as a resting position- Hewes GW: The anthropology of posture Scientific American, 196: 122-132 (1957)
Squatting as a dynamic exercise
- Escamilla, RF Biodynamics Knee biomechanics of the dynamic squat exercise Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise: January 2001 - Volume 33 - Issue 1 - pp 127–141
Squatting in childbirth
- Gardosi J, Hutson N Randomised, Controlled Trial Of Squatting In the Second Stage of Labour 1989 The Lancet, Volume 334, Issue 8654, Pages 74–77
- McKay S. Squatting: An Alternate Position For The Second Stage Of Labour Am J Maternal Child Nur 1984;9:181-183.
- Nasir A, Korejo R, Noorani KJ. Child birth in squatting position. Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association 2007/1;57:19-22
- Paciornik M, Paciornik C Birth in the Squatting Position (1979) Polymorph Films
- Paciornik M, Paciornik C Commentary: arguments against episiotomyEpisiotomyAn episiotomy , also known as perineotomy, is a surgically planned incision on the perineum and the posterior vaginal wall during second stage of labor. The incision, which can be midline or at an angle from the posterior end of the vulva, is performed under local anaesthetic , and is sutured...
and in favor of squatting for birth. Birth 1990 Dec;17(4):234, 236. and Birth 1991 Jun;18(2):119. - Paciornik M Use of the squatting position for birth. Birth 1992 Dec;19(4):230-1.
Health effects of squatting
- Chakravarty A, Chatterjee SK, Chakrabarti S. Blood pressure changes during squatting—a study in normal subjects and its possible clinical significance. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India. 2001 Jun; 49: 678-9
Circulation
- O'Donnell TV, McIlroy MB. The circulatory effects of squatting. Am Heart J. 1962 Sep;64:347-56.
- Sharpey-Schafer EP Effects of Squatting on the Normal and Failing Circulation Br Med J. 12 May 1956; 1(4975): 1072–1074.