Sprouts of capitalism
Encyclopedia
The sprouts of capitalism, seeds of capitalism or capitalist sprouts (translations of ) are features of the economy of Late Imperial China
(Ming
and Qing
dynasties) that mainland Chinese historians have seen as resembling developments in pre-industrial Europe, and as precursors of a hypothetical indigenous development of industrial capitalism.
in 1939:
Similar ideas had been explored by Chinese Marxists in the 1920s and 1930s, and provided a way of reconciling Chinese history with Joseph Stalin
's five stages of modes of production: primitive, slavery, feudal, capitalist and socialist.
Shang Yue and other Chinese historians sought to justify Mao's hypothesis in the 1950s, producing a series of papers collected in two volumes entitled Essays on the debate on the sprouts of capitalism in China published in 1957 and 1960.
They identified a number of developments in the Chinese economy between the 16th and 18th centuries, including improved farming and handicraft technologies, improvement and expansion of markets, and changes in wage labor relationships.
These developments were compared to earlier changes in European economies, and held to constitute a new proto-capitalist phase of Chinese economic history.
Some versions of the theory held that indigenous development of industrial capitalism was forestalled by the 17th century Manchu invasion or 19th century European attacks
,
while others believed that the sprouts were always weak and had withered by the 19th century.
These ideas were also explored by Japanese historians of China in the 1950s, though they concluded that a decisive transformation was unlikely.
In 1980 the late-Ming historian Mori Masao said this work "failed to produce satisfactory theoretical results, though it uncovered a wealth of historical facts which had hitherto been unknown."
Western economic historians have tended to dismiss the suggestion that these developments presaged a capitalist transformation.
In China, Shang Yue and the "sprouts" theories were denounced in the Anti-rightist Movement
and Cultural Revolution
for their emphasis on capitalism, and for contradicting Mao's emphasis on Chinese reaction to Western imperialism in the 19th century.
The fall of the Gang of Four
in 1976 and the resurgence of the Chinese economy
in the 1980s led to renewed Chinese interest in these ideas.
A notable contribution was the 3-volume A History of the Development of Capitalism in China, by Wu Chengming and colleagues in 1985, with the second volume dealing with the sprouts of capitalism.
Many Chinese historians now accept that the "sprouts" did not amount to a decisive new phase of economic development.
were low in comparison with both earlier periods and other contemporary states.
The Chinese economy became very commercialized as market agriculture replaced subsistence farming. Wage labor became increasingly common as large-scale private industry developed, displacing and often buying out government workshops.
Economic historian Robert Allen estimates that family incomes and agricultural labor productivity of the Yangtze delta region, the richest province of China, were substantially higher in 1620 than in most of contemporary Europe.
In addition to being a period of wealth and economic growth, the late Ming dynasty also brought intellectual fervor and liberalization. New thinkers such as Wang Yangming
and Li Zhi challenged orthodox Confucianism, arguing that the words of Confucius
and Mencius
were fallible and that wisdom was universal; they also questioned government power over the economy and personal rights. Scholars of the Donglin school protested increases in government taxation during the Wanli Emperor
and restrictions on freedom of speech, advocating a program similar to Classical liberalism
. Ming scholars also adopted western science, including that of Archimedes
. Additional scientific advancement also flourished during the late Ming. Some scholars contend that the economic and social developments during the late Ming paralleled the development of pre-industrial Europe and would have allowed China to enter a modern age, but was halted by the Manchu conquest and subsequent Qing Dynasty
.
Late Imperial China
Late Imperial China refers to the period between the end of Mongol rule in 1368 and the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912 and includes the Ming and Qing Dynasties...
(Ming
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
and Qing
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
dynasties) that mainland Chinese historians have seen as resembling developments in pre-industrial Europe, and as precursors of a hypothetical indigenous development of industrial capitalism.
History of the idea
The Chinese term was first used in the first chapter of The Chinese Revolution and the Chinese Communist Party, edited by Mao ZedongMao Zedong
Mao Zedong, also transliterated as Mao Tse-tung , and commonly referred to as Chairman Mao , was a Chinese Communist revolutionary, guerrilla warfare strategist, Marxist political philosopher, and leader of the Chinese Revolution...
in 1939:
As China's feudal society had developed a commodity economy, and so carried within itself the seeds of capitalism, China would of herself have developed slowly into a capitalist society even without the impact of foreign capitalism.
Similar ideas had been explored by Chinese Marxists in the 1920s and 1930s, and provided a way of reconciling Chinese history with Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution and had held the position of first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee...
's five stages of modes of production: primitive, slavery, feudal, capitalist and socialist.
Shang Yue and other Chinese historians sought to justify Mao's hypothesis in the 1950s, producing a series of papers collected in two volumes entitled Essays on the debate on the sprouts of capitalism in China published in 1957 and 1960.
They identified a number of developments in the Chinese economy between the 16th and 18th centuries, including improved farming and handicraft technologies, improvement and expansion of markets, and changes in wage labor relationships.
These developments were compared to earlier changes in European economies, and held to constitute a new proto-capitalist phase of Chinese economic history.
Some versions of the theory held that indigenous development of industrial capitalism was forestalled by the 17th century Manchu invasion or 19th century European attacks
Opium Wars
The Opium Wars, also known as the Anglo-Chinese Wars, divided into the First Opium War from 1839 to 1842 and the Second Opium War from 1856 to 1860, were the climax of disputes over trade and diplomatic relations between China under the Qing Dynasty and the British Empire...
,
while others believed that the sprouts were always weak and had withered by the 19th century.
These ideas were also explored by Japanese historians of China in the 1950s, though they concluded that a decisive transformation was unlikely.
In 1980 the late-Ming historian Mori Masao said this work "failed to produce satisfactory theoretical results, though it uncovered a wealth of historical facts which had hitherto been unknown."
Western economic historians have tended to dismiss the suggestion that these developments presaged a capitalist transformation.
In China, Shang Yue and the "sprouts" theories were denounced in the Anti-rightist Movement
Anti-Rightist Movement
The Anti-Rightist Movement of the People's Republic of China in the 1950s and early 1960s consisted of a series of campaigns to purge alleged "rightists" within the Communist Party of China and abroad...
and Cultural Revolution
Cultural Revolution
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, commonly known as the Cultural Revolution , was a socio-political movement that took place in the People's Republic of China from 1966 through 1976...
for their emphasis on capitalism, and for contradicting Mao's emphasis on Chinese reaction to Western imperialism in the 19th century.
The fall of the Gang of Four
Gang of Four
The Gang of Four was the name given to a political faction composed of four Chinese Communist Party officials. They came to prominence during the Cultural Revolution and were subsequently charged with a series of treasonous crimes...
in 1976 and the resurgence of the Chinese economy
Chinese economic reform
The Chinese economic reform refers to the program of economic reforms called "Socialism with Chinese characteristics" in the People's Republic of China that were started in December 1978 by reformists within the Communist Party of China led by Deng Xiaoping.China had one of the world's largest...
in the 1980s led to renewed Chinese interest in these ideas.
A notable contribution was the 3-volume A History of the Development of Capitalism in China, by Wu Chengming and colleagues in 1985, with the second volume dealing with the sprouts of capitalism.
Many Chinese historians now accept that the "sprouts" did not amount to a decisive new phase of economic development.
Late Ming Dynasty
Late Ming taxesTaxation in premodern China
In the premodern era of Chinese history, taxation by the various dynasties that ruled China varied greatly. Overall, the most important source of state revenue was the tax on agriculture, or land tax. During some dynasties, the government also imposed state monopolies which became important sources...
were low in comparison with both earlier periods and other contemporary states.
The Chinese economy became very commercialized as market agriculture replaced subsistence farming. Wage labor became increasingly common as large-scale private industry developed, displacing and often buying out government workshops.
Economic historian Robert Allen estimates that family incomes and agricultural labor productivity of the Yangtze delta region, the richest province of China, were substantially higher in 1620 than in most of contemporary Europe.
In addition to being a period of wealth and economic growth, the late Ming dynasty also brought intellectual fervor and liberalization. New thinkers such as Wang Yangming
Wang Yangming
Wang Yangming was a Ming Chinese idealist Neo-Confucian philosopher, official, educationist, calligraphist and general. After Zhu Xi, he is commonly regarded as the most important Neo-Confucian thinker, with interpretations of Confucianism that denied the rationalist dualism of the orthodox...
and Li Zhi challenged orthodox Confucianism, arguing that the words of Confucius
Confucius
Confucius , literally "Master Kong", was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period....
and Mencius
Mencius
Mencius was a Chinese philosopher who was arguably the most famous Confucian after Confucius himself.-Life:Mencius, also known by his birth name Meng Ke or Ko, was born in the State of Zou, now forming the territory of the county-level city of Zoucheng , Shandong province, only thirty kilometres ...
were fallible and that wisdom was universal; they also questioned government power over the economy and personal rights. Scholars of the Donglin school protested increases in government taxation during the Wanli Emperor
Wanli Emperor
The Wanli Emperor was emperor of China between 1572 and 1620. His era name means "Ten thousand calendars". Born Zhu Yijun, he was the Longqing Emperor's third son...
and restrictions on freedom of speech, advocating a program similar to Classical liberalism
Classical liberalism
Classical liberalism is the philosophy committed to the ideal of limited government, constitutionalism, rule of law, due process, and liberty of individuals including freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and free markets....
. Ming scholars also adopted western science, including that of Archimedes
Archimedes
Archimedes of Syracuse was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Among his advances in physics are the foundations of hydrostatics, statics and an...
. Additional scientific advancement also flourished during the late Ming. Some scholars contend that the economic and social developments during the late Ming paralleled the development of pre-industrial Europe and would have allowed China to enter a modern age, but was halted by the Manchu conquest and subsequent Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
.
See also
- Economic history of China (pre-1911)
- proto-industrializationProto-industrializationProto-industrialisation is a phase in the development of modern industrial economies that preceded, and created conditions for, the establishment of fully industrial societies...
- Asiatic mode of productionAsiatic mode of productionThe theory of the Asiatic mode of production was devised by Karl Marx around the early 1850s. The essence of the theory has been described as "[the] suggestion .....
- Great DivergenceGreat divergenceThe Great Divergence, a term coined by Samuel Huntington , refers to the process by which the Western world The Great Divergence, a term coined by Samuel Huntington (also known as the European miracle, a term coined by Eric Jones in 1981), refers to the process by which the Western world The Great...