South Caucasian languages
Encyclopedia
The Kartvelian languages (also known as South Caucasian) are spoken primarily in Georgia
, with a large group of ethnic Georgian
speakers in Russia
, the United States
, the European Union
, and northeastern parts of Turkey
. There are approximately 5.2 million speakers of this language family worldwide.
It is not known to be related to any other language family in the world. The first literary source in a Kartvelian language (the inscription of Abba Antoni, composed in ancient Georgian script at the Georgian monastery near Bethlehem
) dates back to 440 AD.
Mingrelian has been written with the Georgian alphabet since 1864, especially in the period from 1930 to 1938, when the Mingrelians enjoyed some cultural autonomy, and after 1989.
The Laz language was written chiefly between 1927 and 1937, and now again in Turkey, with the Latin alphabet. Laz, however, is disappearing as its speakers are integrating into mainstream Turkish society.
The connection was first reported in linguistic literature by J. Güldenstädt
in the 18th century, and later proven by G. Rosen, M. Brosset
, F. Bopp
and others during the 1840s. Laz
and Mingrelian are sometimes considered dialects of a single language, called "Zan
".
On the basis of glottochronological analysis
, G. Klimov dates the split of the Proto-Kartvelian
into Svan
and Proto-Karto-Zan to the 19th century BC, and the further division into Georgian
and Zan
to the 8th century BC, although with the reservation that such dating is very preliminary and substantial further study is required.
, due to the lack of sound correspondences between the South and North Caucasian families. Some linguists have proposed that the Kartvelian family is part of a much larger Nostratic
language family, but both the concept of a Nostratic family and Georgian's relation thereto are in doubt.
Certain grammatical similarities with Basque
, especially in the case system
, have often been pointed out. However, these theories, which also tend to link the Caucasian languages with other non-Indo-European and non-Semitic languages of the Near East of ancient times, are generally considered to lack conclusive evidence and must therefore be deemed purely hypothetical.
Any similarities to other linguistic phyla may be due to areal influences. Heavy borrowing in both directions (i.e. from North Caucasian to Kartvelian and vice versa) has been observed: therefore it is likely that certain grammatical features have been influenced as well. If the Dené–Caucasian hypothesis, which attempts to link Basque
, Burushaski, the North Caucasian families
and other phyla, is correct, then the similarities to Basque may also be due to these influences, however indirect. Certain Kartvelian-Indo-European
lexical links are revealed at the protolanguage level, which are ascribed to the early contacts between Proto-Kartvelian
and Proto-Indo-European
populations.
does not exist.
s. A performer of an action is called the subject
and affected persons are objects (direct or indirect). The person may be singular or plural. According to the number of persons, the verbs are classified as unipersonal, bipersonal or tripersonal.
Subjects and objects are indicated with special affix
es.
By means of special markers Kartvelian verbs can indicate four kinds of action intentionality ("version"):
Georgia (country)
Georgia is a sovereign state in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded to the west by the Black Sea, to the north by Russia, to the southwest by Turkey, to the south by Armenia, and to the southeast by Azerbaijan. The capital of...
, with a large group of ethnic Georgian
Georgians
The Georgians are an ethnic group that have originated in Georgia, where they constitute a majority of the population. Large Georgian communities are also present throughout Russia, European Union, United States, and South America....
speakers in Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, the European Union
European Union
The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
, and northeastern parts of Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
. There are approximately 5.2 million speakers of this language family worldwide.
It is not known to be related to any other language family in the world. The first literary source in a Kartvelian language (the inscription of Abba Antoni, composed in ancient Georgian script at the Georgian monastery near Bethlehem
Bethlehem
Bethlehem is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank of the Jordan River, near Israel and approximately south of Jerusalem, with a population of about 30,000 people. It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate of the Palestinian National Authority and a hub of Palestinian culture and tourism...
) dates back to 440 AD.
Classification
The Kartvelian language family consists of four closely related languages:- SvanSvan languageThe Svan language is a Kartvelian language spoken in the Western Georgian region of Svaneti primarily by the Georgians of Svan origin...
(ლუშნუ ნინ, lušnu nin), with approximately 35,000–40,000 native speakers mainly in the northwestern mountainous region of SvanetiSvanetiSvaneti is a historic province in Georgia, in the northwestern part of the country. It is inhabited by the Svans, a geographic subgroup of the Georgians.- Geography :...
, GeorgiaGeorgia (country)Georgia is a sovereign state in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded to the west by the Black Sea, to the north by Russia, to the southwest by Turkey, to the south by Armenia, and to the southeast by Azerbaijan. The capital of...
, and in the Kodori GorgeKodori ValleyThe Kodori Valley is a river valley in Abkhazia, Georgia's breakaway autonomous republic. The valley's upper part, populated by Svans, was the only corner of the post-1993 Abkhazia, directly controlled by the central Georgian government, which officially styles the area as Upper Abkhazia...
of AbkhaziaAbkhaziaAbkhazia is a disputed political entity on the eastern coast of the Black Sea and the south-western flank of the Caucasus.Abkhazia considers itself an independent state, called the Republic of Abkhazia or Apsny...
, Georgia. - Karto-Zan
- GeorgianGeorgian languageGeorgian is the native language of the Georgians and the official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus.Georgian is the primary language of about 4 million people in Georgia itself, and of another 500,000 abroad...
(ქართული ენა, kartuli ena) with approximately 4.5 million native speakers, mainly in GeorgiaGeorgia (country)Georgia is a sovereign state in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded to the west by the Black Sea, to the north by Russia, to the southwest by Turkey, to the south by Armenia, and to the southeast by Azerbaijan. The capital of...
. There are Georgian-speaking communities in RussiaRussiaRussia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, TurkeyTurkeyTurkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
, IranIranIran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
, IsraelIsraelThe State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
, and EU countries, but the current number and distribution of them are unknown. - ZanZan languagesThe Zan languages, or Zanuri, are a branch of the Kartvelian languages constituted by the Mingrelian and Laz languages. Some linguists consider both to be members dialects of the same, Zan, language...
- Mingrelian (მარგალური ნინა, margaluri nina), with some 500,000 native speakers as of 1989, mainly in the western regions of Georgia of SamegreloSamegreloSamegrelo/Samargalo or Megrelia, Mingrelia is a historic province in the western part of Georgia, formerly also known as Odishi.It is inhabited by the Megrelians, an ethnic subgroup of the Georgians.-Geography and Climate:...
and AbkhaziaAbkhaziaAbkhazia is a disputed political entity on the eastern coast of the Black Sea and the south-western flank of the Caucasus.Abkhazia considers itself an independent state, called the Republic of Abkhazia or Apsny...
(at present in Gali districtGali districtGali district is a district of Abkhazia. Its capital is Gali, the town by the same name. The district is smaller than the eponymous one in the de jure subdivision of Georgia, as some of its former territory is now part of Tkvarcheli District, formed by de facto Abkhaz authorities in 1995.Gali...
only). The number of Mingrelian speakers in AbkhaziaAbkhaziaAbkhazia is a disputed political entity on the eastern coast of the Black Sea and the south-western flank of the Caucasus.Abkhazia considers itself an independent state, called the Republic of Abkhazia or Apsny...
underwent a dramatic decrease in the 1990s as a result of heavy ethnic cleansing of the Georgian populationEthnic cleansing of Georgians in AbkhaziaThe Ethnic Cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia, also known as the Massacres of Georgians in Abkhazia and Genocide of Georgians in Abkhazia — refers to ethnic cleansing, massacres and forced mass expulsion of thousands of ethnic Georgians living in Abkhazia during the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict...
, the overwhelming majority of which were MingreliansMingreliansThe Mingrelians are a subethnic group of Georgians that mostly live in Samegrelo region of Georgia. They also live in considerable numbers in Abkhazia and Tbilisi...
. The Mingrelians displaced from AbkhaziaAbkhaziaAbkhazia is a disputed political entity on the eastern coast of the Black Sea and the south-western flank of the Caucasus.Abkhazia considers itself an independent state, called the Republic of Abkhazia or Apsny...
are scattered elsewhere in the Georgian government territory, with dense clusters in TbilisiTbilisiTbilisi is the capital and the largest city of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Mt'k'vari River. The name is derived from an early Georgian form T'pilisi and it was officially known as Tiflis until 1936...
and ZugdidiZugdidiZugdidi is a city in the Western Georgian historical province of Samegrelo . It is situated in the north-west of that province. The city is located 318 kilometres west of Tbilisi, 30 km. from Black sea coast and 30 km. from Egrisi range. 100-110 metres above sea level. As of 2007, it had a...
. - LazLaz languageThe Laz language is a South Caucasian language spoken by the Laz people on the Southeast shore of the Black Sea...
(ლაზური ნენა, lazuri nena), with 220,000 native speakers as of 1980, mostly in the Black SeaBlack SeaThe Black Sea is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and the Aegean seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean...
littoral area of northeast TurkeyTurkeyTurkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
, and with some 30,000 in AdjaraAdjaraAdjara , officially the Autonomous Republic of Adjara , is an autonomous republic of Georgia.Adjara is located in the southwestern corner of Georgia, bordered by Turkey to the south and the eastern end of the Black Sea...
, Georgia.
- Mingrelian (მარგალური ნინა, margaluri nina), with some 500,000 native speakers as of 1989, mainly in the western regions of Georgia of Samegrelo
- Georgian
Social and cultural status
Georgian is the official language of Georgia (spoken by 90% of the population) and the main language for literary and business use for all Kartvelian speakers in Georgia. It is written with an original and distinctive alphabet, and the oldest surviving literary text dates from the 5th century AD — the only Caucasian language that does possess an ancient literary tradition. The old Georgian script seems to have derived from Aramaic, with Greek influences.Mingrelian has been written with the Georgian alphabet since 1864, especially in the period from 1930 to 1938, when the Mingrelians enjoyed some cultural autonomy, and after 1989.
The Laz language was written chiefly between 1927 and 1937, and now again in Turkey, with the Latin alphabet. Laz, however, is disappearing as its speakers are integrating into mainstream Turkish society.
Genealogical tree
The connection was first reported in linguistic literature by J. Güldenstädt
Johann Anton Güldenstädt
Johann Anton Güldenstädt was a Baltic German naturalist and explorer in Russian service....
in the 18th century, and later proven by G. Rosen, M. Brosset
Marie-Félicité Brosset
Marie-Félicité Brosset was a French orientalist who specialized in Georgian and Armenian studies.He was born in Paris into the family of a poor merchant who died the same year that Brosset was born...
, F. Bopp
Franz Bopp
Franz Bopp was a German linguist known for extensive comparative work on Indo-European languages.-Biography:...
and others during the 1840s. Laz
Laz language
The Laz language is a South Caucasian language spoken by the Laz people on the Southeast shore of the Black Sea...
and Mingrelian are sometimes considered dialects of a single language, called "Zan
Zan languages
The Zan languages, or Zanuri, are a branch of the Kartvelian languages constituted by the Mingrelian and Laz languages. Some linguists consider both to be members dialects of the same, Zan, language...
".
On the basis of glottochronological analysis
Glottochronology
Glottochronology is that part of lexicostatistics dealing with the chronological relationship between languages....
, G. Klimov dates the split of the Proto-Kartvelian
Proto-Kartvelian language
The Proto-Kartvelian language, or Common Kartvelian, is the hypothetical common ancestor of the Kartvelian languages in the Caucasus, which was spoken by the ancestors of the modern Kartvelian peoples...
into Svan
Svan language
The Svan language is a Kartvelian language spoken in the Western Georgian region of Svaneti primarily by the Georgians of Svan origin...
and Proto-Karto-Zan to the 19th century BC, and the further division into Georgian
Georgian language
Georgian is the native language of the Georgians and the official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus.Georgian is the primary language of about 4 million people in Georgia itself, and of another 500,000 abroad...
and Zan
Zan languages
The Zan languages, or Zanuri, are a branch of the Kartvelian languages constituted by the Mingrelian and Laz languages. Some linguists consider both to be members dialects of the same, Zan, language...
to the 8th century BC, although with the reservation that such dating is very preliminary and substantial further study is required.
Higher-level connections
No relationship with other languages has been demonstrated so far, not even with the two North Caucasian language familiesNorth Caucasian languages
North Caucasian languages is a blanket term for two language phyla spoken chiefly in the north Caucasus and Turkey: the Northwest Caucasian family and the Northeast Caucasian family North Caucasian languages (sometimes called simply Caucasic as opposed to Kartvelian, and to avoid confusion with...
, due to the lack of sound correspondences between the South and North Caucasian families. Some linguists have proposed that the Kartvelian family is part of a much larger Nostratic
Nostratic languages
Nostratic is a proposed language family that includes many of the indigenous language families of Eurasia, including the Indo-European, Uralic and Altaic as well as Kartvelian languages...
language family, but both the concept of a Nostratic family and Georgian's relation thereto are in doubt.
Certain grammatical similarities with Basque
Basque language
Basque is the ancestral language of the Basque people, who inhabit the Basque Country, a region spanning an area in northeastern Spain and southwestern France. It is spoken by 25.7% of Basques in all territories...
, especially in the case system
Declension
In linguistics, declension is the inflection of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and articles to indicate number , case , and gender...
, have often been pointed out. However, these theories, which also tend to link the Caucasian languages with other non-Indo-European and non-Semitic languages of the Near East of ancient times, are generally considered to lack conclusive evidence and must therefore be deemed purely hypothetical.
Any similarities to other linguistic phyla may be due to areal influences. Heavy borrowing in both directions (i.e. from North Caucasian to Kartvelian and vice versa) has been observed: therefore it is likely that certain grammatical features have been influenced as well. If the Dené–Caucasian hypothesis, which attempts to link Basque
Basque language
Basque is the ancestral language of the Basque people, who inhabit the Basque Country, a region spanning an area in northeastern Spain and southwestern France. It is spoken by 25.7% of Basques in all territories...
, Burushaski, the North Caucasian families
North Caucasian languages
North Caucasian languages is a blanket term for two language phyla spoken chiefly in the north Caucasus and Turkey: the Northwest Caucasian family and the Northeast Caucasian family North Caucasian languages (sometimes called simply Caucasic as opposed to Kartvelian, and to avoid confusion with...
and other phyla, is correct, then the similarities to Basque may also be due to these influences, however indirect. Certain Kartvelian-Indo-European
Indo-European languages
The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred related languages and dialects, including most major current languages of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and South Asia and also historically predominant in Anatolia...
lexical links are revealed at the protolanguage level, which are ascribed to the early contacts between Proto-Kartvelian
Proto-Kartvelian language
The Proto-Kartvelian language, or Common Kartvelian, is the hypothetical common ancestor of the Kartvelian languages in the Caucasus, which was spoken by the ancestors of the modern Kartvelian peoples...
and Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European language
The Proto-Indo-European language is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans...
populations.
Regular correspondences
| Proto-Kartv. | Geo. | Zan | Svan |
|---|---|---|---|
| *ა (*a) [ɑ] |
a [ɑ] |
o [ɔ] |
a [ɑ] |
| *ე (*e) [ɛ] |
e [ɛ] |
a [ɑ] |
e [ɛ] |
| *ი (*i) [i] |
i [i] |
i [i] |
i [i] |
| *ო (*o) [ɔ] |
o [ɔ] |
o [ɔ] |
o [ɔ] |
| *უ (*u) [u] |
u [u] |
u [u] |
u [u] |
| Proto-Kartv. | Geo. | Zan | Svan | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Voiced Voice (phonetics) Voice or voicing is a term used in phonetics and phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless or voiced. The term, however, is used to refer to two separate concepts. Voicing can refer to the articulatory process in which the vocal cords vibrate... stops Stop consonant In phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or an oral stop, is a stop consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be done with the tongue , lips , and &... |
*ბ (*b) [b] |
b [b] |
b [b] |
b [b] |
| *დ (*d) [d] |
d [d] |
d [d] |
d [d] |
|
| *გ (*g) [ɡ] |
g [ɡ] |
g [ɡ] |
g / ǯ [ɡ] / [d͡ʒ] |
|
| Voiced affricates Affricate consonant Affricates are consonants that begin as stops but release as a fricative rather than directly into the following vowel.- Samples :... |
*ძ (*ʒ) [d͡z] |
ʒ [d͡z] |
ʒ [d͡z] |
ʒ / z [d͡z] / [z] |
| *ძ₁ (*ʒ₁) [d͡ʐ] |
ǯ [d͡ʒ] |
ǯ / ž [d͡ʒ] / [ʒ] |
||
| *ჯ (*ǯ) [d͡ʒ] |
ǯ [d͡ʒ] |
ǯg / ʒg [d͡ʒɡ] / [d͡zɡ] |
ǯg / sg [d͡ʒɡ] / [sɡ] |
|
| Voiced fricatives Fricative consonant Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate, in the case of German , the final consonant of Bach; or... |
*ზ (*z) [z] |
z [z] |
z [z] |
z [z] |
| *ზ₁ (*z₁) [ʐ] |
ž [ʒ] |
ž [ʒ] |
||
| *ღ (*ɣ) [ɣ] |
ɣ [ɣ] |
ɣ [ɣ] |
ɣ [ɣ] |
|
| *უ̂ (*w) [w] |
v [v] |
v [v] |
w [w] |
|
| Ejective Ejective consonant In phonetics, ejective consonants are voiceless consonants that are pronounced with simultaneous closure of the glottis. In the phonology of a particular language, ejectives may contrast with aspirated or tenuis consonants... stops |
*პ (*ṗ) [pʼ] |
ṗ [pʼ] |
ṗ [pʼ] |
ṗ [pʼ] |
| *ტ (*ṭ) [tʼ] |
ṭ [tʼ] |
ṭ [tʼ] |
ṭ [tʼ] |
|
| *კ (*ḳ) [kʼ] |
ḳ [kʼ] |
ḳ [kʼ] |
ḳ / č' [kʼ] / [t͡ʃʼ] |
|
| *ყ (*qʼ) [qʼ] |
qʼ [qʼ] |
qʼ / ʔ / ḳ [qʼ] / [ʔ] / [kʼ] |
qʼ [qʼ] |
|
| Ejective affr. |
*წ (*ċ) [t͡sʼ] |
ċ [t͡sʼ] |
ċ [t͡sʼ] |
ċ [t͡sʼ] |
| *წ₁ (*ċ₁) [t͡ʂʼ] |
čʼ [t͡ʃʼ] |
čʼ [t͡ʃʼ] |
||
| *ლʼ (*ɬʼ) [t͡ɬʼ] |
h [h] |
|||
| *ჭ (*čʼ) [t͡ʃʼ] |
čʼ [t͡ʃʼ] |
čʼḳ / ċḳ [t͡ʃʼkʼ] / [t͡sʼkʼ] |
čʼḳ / šḳ [t͡ʃʼkʼ] / [ʃkʼ] |
|
| Voiceless stops and affr. |
*ფ (*p) [p] |
p [p] |
p [p] |
p [p] |
| *თ (*t) [t] |
t [t] |
t [t] |
t [t] |
|
| *ც (*c) [t͡s] |
c [t͡s] |
c [t͡s] |
c [t͡s] |
|
| *ც₁ (*c₁) [t͡ʂ] |
č [t͡ʃ] |
č [t͡ʃ] |
||
| *ჩ (*č) [t͡ʃ] |
č [t͡ʃ] |
čk [t͡ʃk] |
čk / šg [t͡ʃk] / [ʃɡ] |
|
| *ქ (*k) [k] |
k [k] |
k [k] |
k / č [k] / [t͡ʃ] |
|
| *ჴ (*q) [q] |
x [x] |
x [x] |
q [q] |
|
| Voiceless fricatives |
*ხ (*x) [x] |
x [x] |
||
| *შ (*š) [ʃ] |
š [ʃ] |
šk / sk [ʃk] / [sk] |
šg / sg [ʃɡ] / [sɡ] |
|
| *ს (*s) [s] |
s [s] |
s [s] |
s [s] |
|
| *ს₁ (*s₁) [ʂ] |
š [ʃ] |
š [ʃ] |
||
| *ლʿ (*lʿ) [ɬ] |
∅ | l [l] |
||
| Liquids Liquid consonant In phonetics, liquids or liquid consonants are a class of consonants consisting of lateral consonants together with rhotics.-Description:... |
*ლ (*l) [l] |
l [l] |
l [l] |
|
| *რ (*r) [r] |
r [r] |
r [r] |
r [r] |
|
| Nasals Nasal consonant A nasal consonant is a type of consonant produced with a lowered velum in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. Examples of nasal consonants in English are and , in words such as nose and mouth.- Definition :... |
*მ (*m) [m] |
m [m] |
m [m] |
m [m] |
| *ნ (*n) [n] |
n [n] |
n [n] |
n [n] |
Noun classification
The Kartvelian languages classify objects as intelligent ("who"-class) and unintelligent ("what"-class) beings. Grammatical genderGrammatical gender
Grammatical gender is defined linguistically as a system of classes of nouns which trigger specific types of inflections in associated words, such as adjectives, verbs and others. For a system of noun classes to be a gender system, every noun must belong to one of the classes and there should be...
does not exist.
| Concrete Physical body In physics, a physical body or physical object is a collection of masses, taken to be one... |
Abstract Abstract object An abstract object is an object which does not exist at any particular time or place, but rather exists as a type of thing . In philosophy, an important distinction is whether an object is considered abstract or concrete. Abstract objects are sometimes called abstracta An abstract object is an... |
||
| Animate | Inanimate | ||
| Human and "human-like" beings (e.g. God, deities, angels) | Animals | Inanimate physical entities | Abstract objects |
| Intelligent | Unintelligent | ||
| "who"-class | "what"-class | ||
Declension
| Case | Singular | Plural | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan | Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan | ||
| Nominative | -i | -i/-e | -i | -i | -ep-i | -ep-e | -eb-i | -är | |
| Ergative | -k | -k | -ma | -d | -ep-k | -epe-k | -eb-ma | -är-d | |
| Dative | -s | -s | -s | -s | -ep-s | -epe-s | -eb-s | -är-s | |
| Genitive | -iš | -iš | -is | -iš | -ep-iš | -epe-š(i) | -eb-is | -are-š | |
| Lative | -iša | -iša | n/a | n/a | -ep-iša | -epe-ša | n/a | n/a | |
| Ablative | -iše | -iše | n/a | n/a | -ep-iše | -epe-še(n) | n/a | n/a | |
| Instrumental | -it | -ite | -it | -šw | -ep-it | -epe-te(n) | -eb-it | -är-šw | |
| Adverbial | -o(t)/-t | -ot | -ad/-d | -d | -ep-o(t) | n/a | -eb-ad | -är-d | |
| Finalis | -išo(t) | n/a | -isad | -išd | -ep-išo(t) | n/a | -eb-isad | -är-išd | |
| Vocative | n/a | n/a | -o (/-v) | n/a | n/a | n/a | -eb-o | n/a |
| Stem: ǯveš- (Min.), mǯveš- (Laz), ʒvel- (Geo.), ǯwinel- (Svan) – "old" | |||||||||
| Case | Singular | Plural | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan | Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan | ||
| Nominative | ǯveš-i | mǯveš-i | ʒvel-i | ǯwinel | ǯveš-ep-i | mǯveš-ep-e | ʒvel-eb-i | ǯwinel-är | |
| Ergative | ǯveš-k | mǯveš-i-k | ʒvel-ma | ǯwinel-d | ǯveš-ep-k | mǯveš-epe-k | ʒvel-eb-ma | ǯwinel-är-d | |
| Dative | ǯveš-s | mǯveš-i-s | ʒvel-s | ǯwinel-s | ǯveš-ep-s | mǯveš-i-epe-s | ʒvel-eb-s | ǯwinel-är-s | |
| Genitive | ǯveš-iš | mǯveš-iš | ʒvel-is | ǯwinl-iš | ǯveš-ep-iš | mǯveš-epe-š | ʒvel-eb-is | ǯwinel-är-iš | |
| Lative | ǯveš-iša | mǯveš-iša | n/a | n/a | ǯveš-ep-iša | mǯveš-epe-ša | n/a | n/a | |
| Ablative | ǯveš-iše | mǯveš-iše | n/a | n/a | ǯveš-ep-iše | mǯveš-epe-še | n/a | n/a | |
| Instrumental | ǯveš-it | mǯveš-ite | ʒvel-it | ǯwinel-šw | ǯveš-ep-it | mǯveš-epe-te | ʒvel-eb-it | ǯwinel-är-šw | |
| Adverbial | ǯveš-o | mǯveš-ot | ʒvel-ad | ǯwinel-d | ǯveš-ep-o | n/a | ʒvel-eb-ad | ǯwinel-är-d | |
| Finalis | ǯveš-išo | n/a | ʒvel-isad | ǯwinel-išd | ǯveš-ep-išo | n/a | ʒvel-eb-isad | ǯwinel-är-išd | |
| Vocative | n/a | n/a | ʒvel-o | n/a | n/a | n/a | ʒvel-eb-o | n/a | |
Verb
Kartvelian verbs can indicate one, two, or three grammatical personGrammatical person
Grammatical person, in linguistics, is deictic reference to a participant in an event; such as the speaker, the addressee, or others. Grammatical person typically defines a language's set of personal pronouns...
s. A performer of an action is called the subject
Subject (grammar)
The subject is one of the two main constituents of a clause, according to a tradition that can be tracked back to Aristotle and that is associated with phrase structure grammars; the other constituent is the predicate. According to another tradition, i.e...
and affected persons are objects (direct or indirect). The person may be singular or plural. According to the number of persons, the verbs are classified as unipersonal, bipersonal or tripersonal.
- Unipersonal verbs have only a subject and so are always intransitive.
- Bipersonal verbs have a subject and one object, which can be direct or indirect. The verb is:
- transitive when the object is direct;
- intransitive if the object is indirect.
- Tripersonal verbs have one subject and both, direct and indirect objects and are ditransitive.
| Unipersonal | Bipersonal | Tripersonal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| intransitive | transitive | intransitive | ditransitive | |
| Subject | + | + | + | + |
| Direct Object | + | + | ||
| Indirect Object | + | + |
Subjects and objects are indicated with special affix
Affix
An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes may be derivational, like English -ness and pre-, or inflectional, like English plural -s and past tense -ed. They are bound morphemes by definition; prefixes and suffixes may be separable affixes...
es.
| Subject set | |||||||||
| Singular | Plural | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Old Geo. | Mod. Geo. | Ming./Laz | Svan | Old Geo. | Mod. Geo. | Ming./Laz | Svan | ||
| S1 | v- | v- | v- | xw- | v-...-t | v-...-t | v-...-t | xw-...-(š)d (excl.) l-...-(š)d (incl.) |
|
| S2 | x/h- | ∅,(h/s)- | ∅ | x-/∅ | x/h-...-t | ∅,(h/s)-...-t | ∅-...-t | x/∅-...-(š)d | |
| S3 | -s,-a/o,-n,-ed | -s,-a/o | -s,-u,-n | (l)-...-s/(a) | -an,-en,-es,-ed | -en,-an,-es | -an,-es | (l)-...-x | |
| Object set | |||||||||
| O1 | m- | m- | m- | m- | m- (excl.) gv- (incl.) |
gv- | m-...-t,-an,-es | n- (excl.) gw- (incl.) |
|
| O2 | g- | g- | g- | ǯ- | g- | g-...-t | g-...-t,-an,-es | ǯ-...-x | |
| O3 | x/h,∅- | ∅,s/h/∅- | ∅ | ∅,x- | x/h,∅- | ∅,s/h/∅-...-t | ∅-...-t,-an,-es | ∅,x-...-x | |
By means of special markers Kartvelian verbs can indicate four kinds of action intentionality ("version"):
- subjective — shows that the action is intended for oneself,
- objective — the action is intended for another person,
- objective-passive — the action is intended for another person and at the same time indicating the passiveness of subject,
- neutral — neutral with respect to intention.
| Version | Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Subjective | -i- | -i- | -i- | -i- |
| Objective | -u- | -u- | -u- | -o- |
| Objective-passive | -a- | -a- | -e- | -e- |
| Neutral | -o-/-a- | -o- | -a- | -a- |
Examples from inherited lexicon
| Proto-Kartv. form |
Karto-Zan | Svan | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Proto-form | Georgian | Mingrelian | Laz | |||
| 1. one, 2. other | *s₁xwa [ʂxwɑ] |
*s₁xwa [ʂxwɑ] |
sxva [sxvɑ] (other) |
šxva [ʃxva] (other) |
čkva / škva [t͡ʃkvɑ] / [ʃkvɑ] (other, one more) |
e-šxu [ɛ-ʃxu] (one) |
| one | n/a | *erti [ɛrti] |
erti [ɛrti] |
arti [ɑrti] |
ar [ɑr] |
n/a |
| two | *yori [jɔri] |
*yori [jɔri] |
ori [ɔri] |
žiri / žəri [ʒiri] / [ʒəri] |
žur / ǯur [ʒur] / [d͡ʒur] |
yori [jɔri] |
| three | *sami [sɑmi] |
*sami [sɑmi] |
sami [sɑmi] |
sumi [sumi] |
sum [sum] |
semi [sɛmi] |
| four | *o(s₁)txo [ɔ(ʂ)txɔ] |
*otxo [ɔtxɔ] |
otxi [ɔtxi] |
otxi [ɔtxi] |
otxo [ɔtxɔ] |
w-oštxw [w-ɔʃtxw] |
| five | *xu(s₁)ti [xu(ʂ)ti] |
*xuti [xuti] |
xuti [xuti] |
xuti [xuti] |
xut [xut] |
wo-xušd [wɔ-xuʃd] |
| six | *eks₁wi [ɛkʂwi] |
*eks₁wi [ɛkʂwi] |
ekvsi [ɛvksi] |
amšvi [ɑmʃwi] |
aši [ɑʃi] |
usgwa [usɡwɑ] |
| seven | *šwidi [ʃwidi] |
*šwidi [ʃwidi] |
švidi [ʃvidi] |
škviti [ʃkviti] |
škvit [ʃkvit] |
i-šgwid [i-ʃɡwid] |
| eight | *arwa [ɑrwɑ] |
*arwa [ɑrwɑ] |
rva [rvɑ] |
ruo / bruo [ruɔ] / [bruɔ] |
ovro / orvo [ɔvrɔ] / [ɔrvɔ] |
ara [ɑrɑ] |
| nine | *c₁xara [t͡ʂxɑrɑ] |
*c₁xara [t͡ʂxɑrɑ] |
cxra [t͡sxrɑ] |
čxoro [t͡ʃxɔrɔ] |
čxoro [t͡ʃxɔrɔ] |
čxara [t͡ʃxɑrɑ] |
| ten | *a(s₁)ti [ɑ(ʂ)ti] |
*ati [ɑti] |
ati [ɑti] |
viti [viti] |
vit [vit] |
ešd [ɛʃd] |
| twenty | n/a | *oc₁i [ɔt͡ʂi] |
oci [ɔt͡si] |
eči [ɛt͡ʃi] |
eči [ɛt͡ʃi] |
n/a |
| hundred | *as₁i [ɑʂi] |
*as₁i [ɑʂi] |
asi [ɑsi] |
oši [ɔʃi] |
oši [ɔʃi] |
aš-ir [ɑʃ-ir] |
| Personal Pronouns | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Proto-Kartv. | Georgian | Mingrelian | Laz | Svan | |
| I | *me [mɛ] |
me [mɛ] |
ma [mɑ] |
ma(n) [mɑ] |
mi [mi] |
| You (sg.) | *sen [sɛn] |
šen [ʃɛn] |
si [si] |
si(n) [si] |
si [si] |
| That | *e- [ɛ-] |
e-sa [ɛ-sɑ] |
e-na [ɛ-nɑ] |
(h)e-ya [(h)ɛ-jɑ] |
e-ǯa [ɛ-d͡ʒɑ] |
| We | *čwen [t͡ʃwɛn] |
čven [t͡ʃvɛn] |
čki(n) / čkə(n) [t͡ʃki(n)] / [t͡ʃkə(n)] |
čkin / čku / šku [t͡ʃkin] / [t͡ʃku] / [ʃku] |
|
| You (pl.) | *stkwen [stkwɛn] |
tkven [tkvɛn] |
tkva(n) [tkvɑ(n)] |
tkvan [tkvɑn] |
sgäy [sɡæj] |
| Possessive Pronouns | |||||
| Proto-Kartv. | Georgian | Mingrelian | Laz | Svan | |
| My | *č(w)e-mi [t͡ʃ(w)ɛ-mi] |
če-mi [t͡ʃɛ-mi] |
čki-mi [t͡ʃki-mi] |
čki-mi / ški-mi [t͡ʃki-mi] / [ʃki-mi] |
mi-šgu [mi-ʃɡu] |
| Your (sg.) | *š(w)eni [ʃ(w)ɛni] |
šeni [ʃɛni] |
skani [skɑni] |
skani [skɑni] |
i-sgu [i-sɡu] |
| His/her/its | *m-is₁ [m-iʂ] |
m-is-i [m-is-i] |
mu-š-i [mu-ʃ-i] |
(h)e-mu-š-i [(h)ɛ-mu-ʃ-i] |
m-ič-a [m-it͡ʃ-ɑ] |
| Our | *čweni [t͡ʃwɛni] |
čveni [t͡ʃvɛni] |
čkini / čkəni [t͡ʃkini] / [t͡ʃkəni] |
čkini / čkuni / škuni [t͡ʃkini] / [t͡ʃkuni] / [ʃkuni] |
gu-šgwey (excl.) [ɡu-ʃɡwɛj] ni-šgwey (incl.) [ni-ʃɡwɛj] |
| Your (pl.) | *stkweni [stkwɛni] |
tkveni [tkvɛni] |
tkvani [tkvɑni] |
tkvani [tkvɑni] |
i-sgwey [i-sɡwɛj] |
External links
- Southern Caucasian languages page in the MultiTree Project at the LINGUIST List.
- Lazuri Nena – The Language of the Laz by Silvia Kutscher.
- The Arnold Chikobava Institute of Linguistics, Georgian Academy of Sciences
- Arthur Holmer, The Iberian-Caucasian Connection in a Typological Perspective
- Atlas of the Caucasian Language, Kartvelian family.
- Map. Caucasian languages.
- The rise and fall and revival of the Ibero-Caucasian hypothesis by Kevin Tuite (Université de Montréal).
