Richard Wiggs
Encyclopedia
Richard Wiggs founder of The Anti-Concorde Project, challenged the idea of supersonic
passenger transport, and helped bring about a re-evaluation of Concorde
's long-term commercial future.
.
In the late 1950s, the advocates of supersonic passenger transport proposed building fleets of hundreds of planes to fly supersonically all over the world, into and out of every major city. It was assumed that people would just get "used to" the sonic boom and to the planes' high noise levels at airports (inescapable problems of supersonic flight). But by the early 1970s, opposition to SSTs had led to bans on supersonic flight in Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, West Germany, Switzerland, Ireland, Canada, the USA, with the probability of it being banned elsewhere. Consequently the routes available for Concorde were extremely limited, and it was clear that it would operate at a loss.
The facts about supersonic transport - that the damaging effects of the sonic boom would be intolerable, that the increased noise at airports would be unacceptable, and that it would be extremely expensive to build - were known in the early '60s from studies carried out by aeronautics expert Dr. B.K.O. Lundberg, Director of the Swedish Aeronautical Research Institute. The Anti-Concorde Project was founded in 1966 by Richard Wiggs to make these facts more widely known, and to oppose the development of supersonic passenger transport.
Wiggs saw Concorde as a test case in the emerging confrontation between concern for the environment and the unchecked development of technology regardless of its true costs.
However, in 1963, when The Observer
newspaper published an article titled The Supersonic Threat, (based on Dr. Lundberg's study Speed and Safety In Civil Aviation,) Lundberg's conclusions that the sonic booms generated by fleets of supersonic passenger planes would produce effects varying from annoyance to severe physical shock, breaking windows and causing structural damage to buildings, reached an audience beyond scientific academia. Many readers thought this would be an "intolerable price for ordinary citizen's to pay for the transportation of privileged business travelers" and a flurry of correspondence to the paper ensued. A Mr. D. W. Rowell wrote that he would support an anti-Concorde movement, if only someone would organize it. Richard Wiggs, a teacher from Letchworth
, Hertfordshire
, wrote to the paper inviting people to write to him. He received 80 letters the next day, and within a few months the volume of correspondence became so great that Wiggs gave up teaching to become full-time organiser of the Anti-Concorde Project.
Among those who wrote letters to the newspapers expressing concern about the development of Concorde were Sir Alec Guinness, and Pamela Hansford Johnson, Baroness Snow. In a letter to The Times
, July 1967, Wiggs wrote:
When the Labour Government took office in October 1964 facing a ₤700m annual deficit, Government-funded "prestige projects" such as the Concorde (with escalating costs and questionable economic advantages) were shortlisted for cancellation. The 1962 development estimates for Concorde were ₤150-170m, and had now risen to ₤280m. Evidence of financial mismanagement also emerged: the UK Treasury, responsible for tracking government spending, had not been involved in drawing up the Anglo-French agreement to build Concorde, and was not represented on the Concorde Finance Committee.
When the Government failed follow through with canceling Concorde, Wiggs believed that the outcome might have been different, had there been an informed lobby armed with the facts about the inherent and intractable problems of supersonic passenger transport, to offset the influence of the aerospace lobby.
Wiggs' idea was that the Anti-Concorde Project would collate and publish the scientific information available about the sonic boom, airport noise, and astronomical fuel use (Concorde used 2.5 x times the amount of fuel per passenger mile as subsonic jets). The Project would also publicize the facts about the economics of Concorde: that the plane could not be operated at a profit, and that the research and development costs, funded entirely with taxpayer's money, would never be recovered.
Wiggs was tireless in his correspondence with newspaper editors and air correspondents, pointing out inaccuracies and correcting misinformation promulgated by The British Aircraft Corporation
(the makers of Concorde) and also by the Government Ministers responsible for the program. But letter-writing could get the campaign only so far, and Wiggs conceived of the idea of placing advertisements in the national press, initially columns in New Scientist
, New Society and the New Statesman
, and later, full page advertisements in The Guardian
, The Times
, and The Observer
. The advertisements stated in detail the case against supersonic transport, and invited people to make a contribution to pay for further advertisements. Later advertisements included the names of contributors.
Dr. John Adams, Professor of Geography, University College, London. Adams was also an original member of the Board of Directors of Friends of the Earth
.
Professor Gustav V. R. Born, FRCP, FRS, Dept. of Pharmacology, Kings College, London.
Dr. Nelson F. Coghill, FRCP, West Middlesex University Hospital.
Mr. C. B. Edwards, Lecturer in Economics, University of East Anglia, and author of Concorde - A Study In Cost Benefit Analysis, University of East Anglia, 1969.
Dr. A. W. F. Edwards, Professor of Biometry, University of Cambridge.
Professor Sir Nevill Mott, FRS, Head of the Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge. (Professor Mott's autobiography,Professor Sir Nevill Mott, A Life in Science, Taylor and Francis, 1986, p.162. describes how he became involved with the Anti-Concorde Project.)
Dr. R. M. S. Perrin, University of Cambridge.
Dr. Jerry Ravetz, Professor in the History and Philosophy of Science, University of Leeds. He was also Executive Secretary for the Council for Science and Society, 1973 - 76.
Professor Horace E. Rose, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kings College, London.
Dr. William A. Shurcliff, Physicist and Senior Research Associate at the Cambridge Electron Accelerator, Harvard University; Director of Citizen's League Against the Sonic Boom, author of SST and the Sonic Boom Handbook, Ballantine Books, 1970.
Professor Cedric A. B. Smith, Professor of Biometry at the Galton Laboratory, University College, London.
Dr. Peter J. Smith, Senior Lecturer, Department of Earth Sciences, Open University.
Baroness (Mary) Stocks, writer.
Professor W. H. Thorpe, FRS, Professor of Ethology, University of Cambridge.
Professor Niko Tinbergen, FRS, Professor of Ethology, Oxford University, and winner of 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology/ Medicine.
International Associate:
Professor B. K. O. Lundberg, Director of the Aeronautical Research Institute, Sweden.
Assistant Secretary:
Mr. Nigel Haigh, M.A.
With subsonic flight, the plane pushes the air ahead of it out of the way as it moves. When a plane is traveling faster than the speed of sound (i.e. faster than air molecules normally travel) the air ahead of it is not pushed out of the way: the air remains still until the plane has approached to within half an inch, at which point the air is forced aside in a few millionths of a second. This creates extreme local compression and heating, and a highly energetic shockwave spreads outwards in a cone. At ground level, this pressure wave extends approximately 25 miles either side of the flight path, and is experienced as a loud sound, with accompanying vibration severe enough to break windows and cause damage to buildings.
The development of Concorde had proceeded on the assumption that the sonic boom would be "acceptable" and that people would get used to it. Huge sums of money had already been committed to the project, with no sonic boom tests having been carried out by the makers of the plane. Yet tests carried out in the US, using military planes, had provided plenty of evidence that the boom would not be acceptable.
In 1961-1962, 150 flights were made over St Louis, Missouri; in 1964, Oklahoma City was subjected to 5 months of supersonic over-flights; in 1965, there was further testing over Chicago, Milwaukee, and Pittsburgh; and in 1966-67 at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Residents found that sonic booms broke windows, cracked plaster, tile and brick. There were claims for hundreds of thousands of dollars in damages. In addition, routine exercises flown by US Air Force supersonic jets caused much damage annually: $3,800,000 in sonic boom damage claims were presented to the Air Force in a three month period in 1967.
In July 1967, the UK Ministry of Technology staged a series of supersonic tests over southern England (using Lightning fighter aircraft), totaling eleven flights. No official arrangements were made to investigate public reaction, but The Guardian
newspaper commissioned a public opinion survey, reporting that: "Nearly two thirds of the population of Bristol were frightened, startled or annoyed by the sonic booms to which they were subjected to last week." The Ministry received 12,000 complaints.
Between 1970-72 when prototype Concorde 002 made a total of 20 flights over the Irish Sea, there were reports of damage including cracked and broken windows, and slates falling from roofs, and accounts of panicking farm animals and frightened children and adults. The Government was ultimately obliged to pay out ₤40,000 in damages.
People living near London's Heathrow Airport were rudely apprised of this on September 13, 1970, when, as a result of bad weather, Concorde 002 was unexpectedly diverted to Heathrow. The Times
reported the following day that there had been "a wave of complaints from people under its approach path" and the airport switchboard had been jammed with calls.
In 1971, the British Airports Authority released figures showing that on every count - take-off, landing, and sideline measurements - Concorde's noise level was twice, or more than twice, that of other aircraft (including the Boeing 747
when it came into service). It was clear that the operation of Concorde would exceed the noise limits introduced in 1970 for all new British aircraft: indeed Concorde was simply exempted from these limits, because it had no hope of operating within them, but as Andrew Wilson, aviation correspondent of The Observer, pointed out, "there was no reason why other countries should be so obliging."
After the appearance of the first Anti-Concorde Project advertisement in New Scientist, Professor John J. Edsell, of Harvard University, began a correspondence with Wiggs. A few months later, Edsell, together with Dr. William A. Shurcliff physicist and senior research associate at the Cambridge Electron Accelerator, founded the Citizen's League Against the Sonic Boom in March 1967. Andrew Wilson wrote: The League "adopted the same propaganda techniques as the Project with astounding success." In December 1970, the US Senate voted to prohibit commercial supersonic flights over the USA and to restrict SST noise levels at US airports.
Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, West Germany and Switzerland indicated that they would be unlikely to permit supersonic over-flying across their territories. Ireland had drafted legislation, and Canada prohibited supersonic over-flight.
Faced with such opposition and restrictions on routes, the makers of Concorde persisted with plans to fly super-sonically over "sparsely populated" territories such as Africa and Australia. The British Aircraft Corporation's attitude was revealed in a comment, made public by Wiggs, by their Press Chief Charles Gardner, who dismissed the possibility of opposition since it would "only affect a bunch of old Abo's." (referring to the Australian Aborigines)
The success of the campaign to ban supersonic flight over land meant that by the time the Concorde came into service in January 1976, the only routes it was able to fly were London - Bahrain, Paris - Rio and Paris - Caracas. Despite the 1970 Federal ban in the US, the plane was given permission in May 1976 to fly into Washington Dulles International Airport. When the Federal ban was lifted at JFK, New York City imposed its own ban, with local opposition organized by Carol Berman
and the Emergency Coalition to Stop the SST (Wiggs visited New York to work with Berman and the Emergency Coalition). Nine months later, following a ruling by the Supreme Court, Concorde was allowed to start flying from Paris and London into JFK.
In December 1977 the plane flew a London - Singapore route a handful of times before the Malaysian government banned it from their airspace, and then it was banned from flying over India.
, England. His family, Quakers from the nearby town of Hitchin
, had a long history of nonconformism
: in 1639, at the local Commissaries' Court, Joseph Wigg refused to remove his hat upon admonition of the judge, saying "he knew where he was: in a place made of wood, stones and other things."
From an early age and throughout his life Wiggs was an independent thinker who stood up for what he thought was right, even if this meant questioning prevailing ideas and criticizing the status quo.
At the age of 12, he campaigned to prevent a fen
woodland near Hitchin from being developed into a cricket field. At age 14, disgusted by the pigs feet his father brought home from the butcher, he adopted vegetarianism
, later becoming vegan. When called up for National Service
in 1948, he registered as a conscientious objector
, and worked on the land, as a hospital orderly, and at a lens factory. Before this, he had spent a year working in the Paleontology Department of the Natural History Museum in London. He went on to study geology and art, taught in a primary school, later teaching children with learning difficulties. He also wrote a children's story, The Wigwam, published in an anthology titled The Sweet Porridge.
He was an early participant in the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
, and marched at Aldermaston, the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment. One of the hand-written placards made by Wiggs read: "Four minutes' warning: just in time to boil an egg." In 1960, Wiggs joined Bertrand Russell
's Committee of 100
which, disillusioned with the political inefficacy of marching, began a campaign of nonviolent civil disobedience
. Wiggs took part in the "sit-down" demonstrations at Grosvenor Square
(protesting the US Polaris missile).
Many demonstrators were arrested and arraigned. Wiggs noticed that the police officers giving testimony in court were not the arresting officers - a contravention of procedure he discovered from reading the Handbook for New Magistrates issued to his wife Margaret, a recent appointee to the North Hertfordshire Bench. Wiggs printed and distributed leaflets, informing protesters that unless the arresting officers appeared in court, there was no proof of arrest.
In 1967, Letchworth Garden City Corporation attempted to get the town exempted from the provisions of the Leasehold Reform Act, which had given homeowners the right to buy the freehold on their property. The 'Letchworth Amendment," Wiggs thought, unjustly cheated people of their rights, and he campaigned successfully to defeat it, using many of the techniques he later used in the Anti-Concorde Project.
In 1971, Wiggs wrote the book Concorde - The Case Against Supersonic Transport with a foreword by Michael Foot
MP, published by Ballantine Books/Friends of the Earth
.
In 1985, Wiggs founded the Nuclear Weapons Freeze Advertising Campaign, whose advisory committee included nuclear physicist and Nobel Peace Laureate Professor Sir Joseph Rotblat
, and physicist Professor Sir Nevill Mott, Head of the Cavendish Laboratory
at the University of Cambridge. The announcement of a General Election, with the subsequent prohibition on political advertising, prematurely curtailed the activities of the Campaign.
For many years Wiggs wrote for the satirical current affairs magazine Private Eye
, initially as aviation correspondent, and later as environment correspondent. He wrote a series entitled "Bricks and Slaughter," exposing malfeasance by the London Brick Company, whose brick-works in Bedfordshire were responsible for sulphur dioxide pollution and the poisoning of local cattle.
A talented amateur musician (playing classical guitar, flute, 'cello, and piano) Wiggs campaigned to save the headquarters of the Rural Music Schools Association, situated in the house and grounds of Little Benslow Hills, Hitchin. His grandfather had been head gardener at the estate, then owned by Esther Seebohm. Upon her death in 1951, she left the property in trust to provide a teaching centre for amateur musicians of all ages. In 1978, a move was made by the then Director and other trustees to close the centre and sell the site for re-development. Wiggs worked tenaciously to prevent the destruction of the estate and preserve the Seebohm legacy, on one occasion recording the proceedings of the Annual General Meeting of the Association with a tape recorder concealed in an umbrella. The coup de grace was his discovery that under the terms of the legacy, the trustees did not actually have the right to sell, and they were forced to resign.
Following the Concorde crash in Paris, July 2000, Wiggs began preparing a revised edition of his 1971 book.
.
The 2003 BBC2 documentary, Concorde - A Love Story aired in the US in 2005 as a PBS Nova documentary, Supersonic Dream, and includes archival footage of Wiggs and interviews with family members. As narrator Richard Donat explains: "In Britain, Concorde's nemesis came in the guise of a retired schoolteacher, Richard Wiggs. Working from his family home, his aim was simple: to stop Concorde from flying."
Supersonic
Supersonic speed is a rate of travel of an object that exceeds the speed of sound . For objects traveling in dry air of a temperature of 20 °C this speed is approximately 343 m/s, 1,125 ft/s, 768 mph or 1,235 km/h. Speeds greater than five times the speed of sound are often...
passenger transport, and helped bring about a re-evaluation of Concorde
Concorde
Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde was a turbojet-powered supersonic passenger airliner, a supersonic transport . It was a product of an Anglo-French government treaty, combining the manufacturing efforts of Aérospatiale and the British Aircraft Corporation...
's long-term commercial future.
Introduction
Concorde is venerated as a technological and national icon, but when it entered service in 1976, not a single plane had been sold, and the State Airlines of Britain and France, the countries which had developed the plane, were essentially forced to take the 14 planes that had been built. Far from being a prestigious triumph, Concorde might be more accurately described as a white elephantWhite elephant
A white elephant is an idiom for a valuable but burdensome possession of which its owner cannot dispose and whose cost is out of proportion to its usefulness or worth...
.
In the late 1950s, the advocates of supersonic passenger transport proposed building fleets of hundreds of planes to fly supersonically all over the world, into and out of every major city. It was assumed that people would just get "used to" the sonic boom and to the planes' high noise levels at airports (inescapable problems of supersonic flight). But by the early 1970s, opposition to SSTs had led to bans on supersonic flight in Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, West Germany, Switzerland, Ireland, Canada, the USA, with the probability of it being banned elsewhere. Consequently the routes available for Concorde were extremely limited, and it was clear that it would operate at a loss.
The facts about supersonic transport - that the damaging effects of the sonic boom would be intolerable, that the increased noise at airports would be unacceptable, and that it would be extremely expensive to build - were known in the early '60s from studies carried out by aeronautics expert Dr. B.K.O. Lundberg, Director of the Swedish Aeronautical Research Institute. The Anti-Concorde Project was founded in 1966 by Richard Wiggs to make these facts more widely known, and to oppose the development of supersonic passenger transport.
Wiggs saw Concorde as a test case in the emerging confrontation between concern for the environment and the unchecked development of technology regardless of its true costs.
Origins of The Anti-Concorde Project
With the signing of the Anglo-French Agreement to build Concorde in 1962, the environmental and economic problems which are inherent and intractable features of supersonic transport were eclipsed by the vested interests of the aeronautics industry and the Government (the collaboration was convenient for the UK's pro-European aspirations).However, in 1963, when The Observer
The Observer
The Observer is a British newspaper, published on Sundays. In the same place on the political spectrum as its daily sister paper The Guardian, which acquired it in 1993, it takes a liberal or social democratic line on most issues. It is the world's oldest Sunday newspaper.-Origins:The first issue,...
newspaper published an article titled The Supersonic Threat, (based on Dr. Lundberg's study Speed and Safety In Civil Aviation,) Lundberg's conclusions that the sonic booms generated by fleets of supersonic passenger planes would produce effects varying from annoyance to severe physical shock, breaking windows and causing structural damage to buildings, reached an audience beyond scientific academia. Many readers thought this would be an "intolerable price for ordinary citizen's to pay for the transportation of privileged business travelers" and a flurry of correspondence to the paper ensued. A Mr. D. W. Rowell wrote that he would support an anti-Concorde movement, if only someone would organize it. Richard Wiggs, a teacher from Letchworth
Letchworth
Letchworth Garden City, commonly known as Letchworth, is a town and civil parish in Hertfordshire, England. The town's name is taken from one of the three villages it surrounded - all of which featured in the Domesday Book. The land used was first purchased by Quakers who had intended to farm the...
, Hertfordshire
Hertfordshire
Hertfordshire is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in the East region of England. The county town is Hertford.The county is one of the Home Counties and lies inland, bordered by Greater London , Buckinghamshire , Bedfordshire , Cambridgeshire and...
, wrote to the paper inviting people to write to him. He received 80 letters the next day, and within a few months the volume of correspondence became so great that Wiggs gave up teaching to become full-time organiser of the Anti-Concorde Project.
Among those who wrote letters to the newspapers expressing concern about the development of Concorde were Sir Alec Guinness, and Pamela Hansford Johnson, Baroness Snow. In a letter to The Times
The Times
The Times is a British daily national newspaper, first published in London in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register . The Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers Limited, a subsidiary since 1981 of News International...
, July 1967, Wiggs wrote:
Anti-Concord Project
From Richard Wiggs
Sir,
Miss Pamela Hansford and Sir Alec Guinness (July 5 and 10), and many other readers of 'The Times' may be glad to know of the existence of the Anti-Concord Project, which has been founded by a group of some hundreds of people including scientists, artists, business men, civil servants, farmers, housewives, professors, M.P.s etc. who are concerned and alarmed at the efforts being made to develop supersonic aircraft.
We see this as a clear case of a choice having to be made -- is technology to be sanely controlled or is it to be allowed increasingly to degrade and destroy our environment?
Our immediate aims are to help create in Britain a climate of public opinion in which it will be possible for the Government to terminate work upon Concord, and to press the Government to make this decision. Our further aim (in co-operation with similar movements in other countries) is to help bring about the banning of supersonic transports internationally.
We shall be glad to hear from people who agree with these aims.
Yours faithfully,
RICHARD WIGGS, Convener.
Methodology of the Anti-Concorde Project
In addition to concerns about the Concorde's environmental impact, Wiggs saw that there existed a need to counterbalance the claims being made by the aerospace industry about the viability (both technical and economic) of the Concorde program.When the Labour Government took office in October 1964 facing a ₤700m annual deficit, Government-funded "prestige projects" such as the Concorde (with escalating costs and questionable economic advantages) were shortlisted for cancellation. The 1962 development estimates for Concorde were ₤150-170m, and had now risen to ₤280m. Evidence of financial mismanagement also emerged: the UK Treasury, responsible for tracking government spending, had not been involved in drawing up the Anglo-French agreement to build Concorde, and was not represented on the Concorde Finance Committee.
When the Government failed follow through with canceling Concorde, Wiggs believed that the outcome might have been different, had there been an informed lobby armed with the facts about the inherent and intractable problems of supersonic passenger transport, to offset the influence of the aerospace lobby.
Wiggs' idea was that the Anti-Concorde Project would collate and publish the scientific information available about the sonic boom, airport noise, and astronomical fuel use (Concorde used 2.5 x times the amount of fuel per passenger mile as subsonic jets). The Project would also publicize the facts about the economics of Concorde: that the plane could not be operated at a profit, and that the research and development costs, funded entirely with taxpayer's money, would never be recovered.
Wiggs was tireless in his correspondence with newspaper editors and air correspondents, pointing out inaccuracies and correcting misinformation promulgated by The British Aircraft Corporation
British Aircraft Corporation
The British Aircraft Corporation was a British aircraft manufacturer formed from the government-pressured merger of English Electric Aviation Ltd., Vickers-Armstrongs , the Bristol Aeroplane Company and Hunting Aircraft in 1960. Bristol, English Electric and Vickers became "parents" of BAC with...
(the makers of Concorde) and also by the Government Ministers responsible for the program. But letter-writing could get the campaign only so far, and Wiggs conceived of the idea of placing advertisements in the national press, initially columns in New Scientist
New Scientist
New Scientist is a weekly non-peer-reviewed English-language international science magazine, which since 1996 has also run a website, covering recent developments in science and technology for a general audience. Founded in 1956, it is published by Reed Business Information Ltd, a subsidiary of...
, New Society and the New Statesman
New Statesman
New Statesman is a British centre-left political and cultural magazine published weekly in London. Founded in 1913, and connected with leading members of the Fabian Society, the magazine reached a circulation peak in the late 1960s....
, and later, full page advertisements in The Guardian
The Guardian
The Guardian, formerly known as The Manchester Guardian , is a British national daily newspaper in the Berliner format...
, The Times
The Times
The Times is a British daily national newspaper, first published in London in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register . The Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers Limited, a subsidiary since 1981 of News International...
, and The Observer
The Observer
The Observer is a British newspaper, published on Sundays. In the same place on the political spectrum as its daily sister paper The Guardian, which acquired it in 1993, it takes a liberal or social democratic line on most issues. It is the world's oldest Sunday newspaper.-Origins:The first issue,...
. The advertisements stated in detail the case against supersonic transport, and invited people to make a contribution to pay for further advertisements. Later advertisements included the names of contributors.
Advisory Committee
Following the initial the letters he wrote to the newspapers, Wiggs enlisted a group of distinguished people to serve as the Anti-Concorde Project's Advisory Committee:Dr. John Adams, Professor of Geography, University College, London. Adams was also an original member of the Board of Directors of Friends of the Earth
Friends of the Earth
Friends of the Earth International is an international network of environmental organizations in 76 countries.FOEI is assisted by a small secretariat which provides support for the network and its agreed major campaigns...
.
Professor Gustav V. R. Born, FRCP, FRS, Dept. of Pharmacology, Kings College, London.
Dr. Nelson F. Coghill, FRCP, West Middlesex University Hospital.
Mr. C. B. Edwards, Lecturer in Economics, University of East Anglia, and author of Concorde - A Study In Cost Benefit Analysis, University of East Anglia, 1969.
Dr. A. W. F. Edwards, Professor of Biometry, University of Cambridge.
Professor Sir Nevill Mott, FRS, Head of the Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge. (Professor Mott's autobiography,Professor Sir Nevill Mott, A Life in Science, Taylor and Francis, 1986, p.162. describes how he became involved with the Anti-Concorde Project.)
Dr. R. M. S. Perrin, University of Cambridge.
Dr. Jerry Ravetz, Professor in the History and Philosophy of Science, University of Leeds. He was also Executive Secretary for the Council for Science and Society, 1973 - 76.
Professor Horace E. Rose, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kings College, London.
Dr. William A. Shurcliff, Physicist and Senior Research Associate at the Cambridge Electron Accelerator, Harvard University; Director of Citizen's League Against the Sonic Boom, author of SST and the Sonic Boom Handbook, Ballantine Books, 1970.
Professor Cedric A. B. Smith, Professor of Biometry at the Galton Laboratory, University College, London.
Dr. Peter J. Smith, Senior Lecturer, Department of Earth Sciences, Open University.
Baroness (Mary) Stocks, writer.
Professor W. H. Thorpe, FRS, Professor of Ethology, University of Cambridge.
Professor Niko Tinbergen, FRS, Professor of Ethology, Oxford University, and winner of 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology/ Medicine.
International Associate:
Professor B. K. O. Lundberg, Director of the Aeronautical Research Institute, Sweden.
Assistant Secretary:
Mr. Nigel Haigh, M.A.
The Sonic Boom
It is a popular misconception that the sonic boom occurs only at the moment a supersonic plane "breaks the sound barrier." In fact, the boom is a type of shock-wave, or pressure disturbance, caused by the movement of the plane through the air, much like the wave produced by the bow of a ship as it moves through water: just as the bow wave is produced for the entire journey of the ship, so the sonic shockwave occurs throughout the duration of a supersonic flight.With subsonic flight, the plane pushes the air ahead of it out of the way as it moves. When a plane is traveling faster than the speed of sound (i.e. faster than air molecules normally travel) the air ahead of it is not pushed out of the way: the air remains still until the plane has approached to within half an inch, at which point the air is forced aside in a few millionths of a second. This creates extreme local compression and heating, and a highly energetic shockwave spreads outwards in a cone. At ground level, this pressure wave extends approximately 25 miles either side of the flight path, and is experienced as a loud sound, with accompanying vibration severe enough to break windows and cause damage to buildings.
The development of Concorde had proceeded on the assumption that the sonic boom would be "acceptable" and that people would get used to it. Huge sums of money had already been committed to the project, with no sonic boom tests having been carried out by the makers of the plane. Yet tests carried out in the US, using military planes, had provided plenty of evidence that the boom would not be acceptable.
In 1961-1962, 150 flights were made over St Louis, Missouri; in 1964, Oklahoma City was subjected to 5 months of supersonic over-flights; in 1965, there was further testing over Chicago, Milwaukee, and Pittsburgh; and in 1966-67 at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Residents found that sonic booms broke windows, cracked plaster, tile and brick. There were claims for hundreds of thousands of dollars in damages. In addition, routine exercises flown by US Air Force supersonic jets caused much damage annually: $3,800,000 in sonic boom damage claims were presented to the Air Force in a three month period in 1967.
In July 1967, the UK Ministry of Technology staged a series of supersonic tests over southern England (using Lightning fighter aircraft), totaling eleven flights. No official arrangements were made to investigate public reaction, but The Guardian
The Guardian
The Guardian, formerly known as The Manchester Guardian , is a British national daily newspaper in the Berliner format...
newspaper commissioned a public opinion survey, reporting that: "Nearly two thirds of the population of Bristol were frightened, startled or annoyed by the sonic booms to which they were subjected to last week." The Ministry received 12,000 complaints.
Between 1970-72 when prototype Concorde 002 made a total of 20 flights over the Irish Sea, there were reports of damage including cracked and broken windows, and slates falling from roofs, and accounts of panicking farm animals and frightened children and adults. The Government was ultimately obliged to pay out ₤40,000 in damages.
Airport noise
The iconic delta wing-shape of the Concorde was designed for efficiency at supersonic speed, by reducing drag. The trade-off however is that the delta wing is much less efficient for subsonic flight. In order to develop enough lift for take-off, Concorde needed to attain a very high speed, produced by high thrust engines with very high velocity: and the greater the jet velocity, the louder the engine noise. Not only was Concorde louder than conventional aircraft on take-off, it was louder on landing approach as well: as the plane reduces speed, the delta wing actually causes increased drag, which the engines have to compensate for with increased thrust, which means increased engine noise.People living near London's Heathrow Airport were rudely apprised of this on September 13, 1970, when, as a result of bad weather, Concorde 002 was unexpectedly diverted to Heathrow. The Times
The Times
The Times is a British daily national newspaper, first published in London in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register . The Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers Limited, a subsidiary since 1981 of News International...
reported the following day that there had been "a wave of complaints from people under its approach path" and the airport switchboard had been jammed with calls.
In 1971, the British Airports Authority released figures showing that on every count - take-off, landing, and sideline measurements - Concorde's noise level was twice, or more than twice, that of other aircraft (including the Boeing 747
Boeing 747
The Boeing 747 is a wide-body commercial airliner and cargo transport, often referred to by its original nickname, Jumbo Jet, or Queen of the Skies. It is among the world's most recognizable aircraft, and was the first wide-body ever produced...
when it came into service). It was clear that the operation of Concorde would exceed the noise limits introduced in 1970 for all new British aircraft: indeed Concorde was simply exempted from these limits, because it had no hope of operating within them, but as Andrew Wilson, aviation correspondent of The Observer, pointed out, "there was no reason why other countries should be so obliging."
International Opposition
In the autumn of 1969, the British Aircraft Corporation referred to "the assumption that supersonic flight will be allowed only over the oceans or over areas with sparse populations" as an "extremely pessimistic assumption" saying that: "Concorde's makers do not expect that its sonic boom will be unacceptable to the great majority of the public."After the appearance of the first Anti-Concorde Project advertisement in New Scientist, Professor John J. Edsell, of Harvard University, began a correspondence with Wiggs. A few months later, Edsell, together with Dr. William A. Shurcliff physicist and senior research associate at the Cambridge Electron Accelerator, founded the Citizen's League Against the Sonic Boom in March 1967. Andrew Wilson wrote: The League "adopted the same propaganda techniques as the Project with astounding success." In December 1970, the US Senate voted to prohibit commercial supersonic flights over the USA and to restrict SST noise levels at US airports.
Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, West Germany and Switzerland indicated that they would be unlikely to permit supersonic over-flying across their territories. Ireland had drafted legislation, and Canada prohibited supersonic over-flight.
Faced with such opposition and restrictions on routes, the makers of Concorde persisted with plans to fly super-sonically over "sparsely populated" territories such as Africa and Australia. The British Aircraft Corporation's attitude was revealed in a comment, made public by Wiggs, by their Press Chief Charles Gardner, who dismissed the possibility of opposition since it would "only affect a bunch of old Abo's." (referring to the Australian Aborigines)
The success of the campaign to ban supersonic flight over land meant that by the time the Concorde came into service in January 1976, the only routes it was able to fly were London - Bahrain, Paris - Rio and Paris - Caracas. Despite the 1970 Federal ban in the US, the plane was given permission in May 1976 to fly into Washington Dulles International Airport. When the Federal ban was lifted at JFK, New York City imposed its own ban, with local opposition organized by Carol Berman
Carol Berman
Carol Berman is a New York Democratic Party politician from Lawrence, in Nassau County, New York, United States, who served in the New York State Senate from 1979 to 1984. Berman first achieved attention for her efforts to prevent the landing of Concorde and other supersonic transports at nearby...
and the Emergency Coalition to Stop the SST (Wiggs visited New York to work with Berman and the Emergency Coalition). Nine months later, following a ruling by the Supreme Court, Concorde was allowed to start flying from Paris and London into JFK.
In December 1977 the plane flew a London - Singapore route a handful of times before the Malaysian government banned it from their airspace, and then it was banned from flying over India.
Biography
Richard Wiggs was born in Letchworth Garden City, HertfordshireHertfordshire
Hertfordshire is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in the East region of England. The county town is Hertford.The county is one of the Home Counties and lies inland, bordered by Greater London , Buckinghamshire , Bedfordshire , Cambridgeshire and...
, England. His family, Quakers from the nearby town of Hitchin
Hitchin
Hitchin is a town in Hertfordshire, England, with an estimated population of 30,360.-History:Hitchin is first noted as the central place of the Hicce people mentioned in a 7th century document, the Tribal Hidage. The tribal name is Brittonic rather than Old English and derives from *siccā, meaning...
, had a long history of nonconformism
Nonconformism
Nonconformity is the refusal to "conform" to, or follow, the governance and usages of the Church of England by the Protestant Christians of England and Wales.- Origins and use:...
: in 1639, at the local Commissaries' Court, Joseph Wigg refused to remove his hat upon admonition of the judge, saying "he knew where he was: in a place made of wood, stones and other things."
From an early age and throughout his life Wiggs was an independent thinker who stood up for what he thought was right, even if this meant questioning prevailing ideas and criticizing the status quo.
At the age of 12, he campaigned to prevent a fen
Fen
A fen is a type of wetland fed by mineral-rich surface water or groundwater. Fens are characterised by their water chemistry, which is neutral or alkaline, with relatively high dissolved mineral levels but few other plant nutrients...
woodland near Hitchin from being developed into a cricket field. At age 14, disgusted by the pigs feet his father brought home from the butcher, he adopted vegetarianism
Vegetarianism
Vegetarianism encompasses the practice of following plant-based diets , with or without the inclusion of dairy products or eggs, and with the exclusion of meat...
, later becoming vegan. When called up for National Service
National service
National service is a common name for mandatory government service programmes . The term became common British usage during and for some years following the Second World War. Many young people spent one or more years in such programmes...
in 1948, he registered as a conscientious objector
Conscientious objector
A conscientious objector is an "individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform military service" on the grounds of freedom of thought, conscience, and/or religion....
, and worked on the land, as a hospital orderly, and at a lens factory. Before this, he had spent a year working in the Paleontology Department of the Natural History Museum in London. He went on to study geology and art, taught in a primary school, later teaching children with learning difficulties. He also wrote a children's story, The Wigwam, published in an anthology titled The Sweet Porridge.
He was an early participant in the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament is an anti-nuclear organisation that advocates unilateral nuclear disarmament by the United Kingdom, international nuclear disarmament and tighter international arms regulation through agreements such as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty...
, and marched at Aldermaston, the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment. One of the hand-written placards made by Wiggs read: "Four minutes' warning: just in time to boil an egg." In 1960, Wiggs joined Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist, but he also admitted that he had never been any of these things...
's Committee of 100
Committee of 100
The Committee of 100 was a British anti-war group. It was set up in 1960 with a hundred public signatories by Bertrand Russell, Ralph Schoenman and Reverend Michael Scott and others...
which, disillusioned with the political inefficacy of marching, began a campaign of nonviolent civil disobedience
Civil disobedience
Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a government, or of an occupying international power. Civil disobedience is commonly, though not always, defined as being nonviolent resistance. It is one form of civil resistance...
. Wiggs took part in the "sit-down" demonstrations at Grosvenor Square
Grosvenor Square
Grosvenor Square is a large garden square in the exclusive Mayfair district of London, England. It is the centrepiece of the Mayfair property of the Duke of Westminster, and takes its name from their surname, "Grosvenor".-History:...
(protesting the US Polaris missile).
Many demonstrators were arrested and arraigned. Wiggs noticed that the police officers giving testimony in court were not the arresting officers - a contravention of procedure he discovered from reading the Handbook for New Magistrates issued to his wife Margaret, a recent appointee to the North Hertfordshire Bench. Wiggs printed and distributed leaflets, informing protesters that unless the arresting officers appeared in court, there was no proof of arrest.
In 1967, Letchworth Garden City Corporation attempted to get the town exempted from the provisions of the Leasehold Reform Act, which had given homeowners the right to buy the freehold on their property. The 'Letchworth Amendment," Wiggs thought, unjustly cheated people of their rights, and he campaigned successfully to defeat it, using many of the techniques he later used in the Anti-Concorde Project.
In 1971, Wiggs wrote the book Concorde - The Case Against Supersonic Transport with a foreword by Michael Foot
Michael Foot
Michael Mackintosh Foot, FRSL, PC was a British Labour Party politician, journalist and author, who was a Member of Parliament from 1945 to 1955 and from 1960 until 1992...
MP, published by Ballantine Books/Friends of the Earth
Friends of the Earth
Friends of the Earth International is an international network of environmental organizations in 76 countries.FOEI is assisted by a small secretariat which provides support for the network and its agreed major campaigns...
.
In 1985, Wiggs founded the Nuclear Weapons Freeze Advertising Campaign, whose advisory committee included nuclear physicist and Nobel Peace Laureate Professor Sir Joseph Rotblat
Joseph Rotblat
Sir Joseph Rotblat, KCMG, CBE, FRS , was a Polish-born, British-naturalised physicist.His work on nuclear fallout was a major contribution to the agreement of the Partial Test Ban Treaty...
, and physicist Professor Sir Nevill Mott, Head of the Cavendish Laboratory
Cavendish Laboratory
The Cavendish Laboratory is the Department of Physics at the University of Cambridge, and is part of the university's School of Physical Sciences. It was opened in 1874 as a teaching laboratory....
at the University of Cambridge. The announcement of a General Election, with the subsequent prohibition on political advertising, prematurely curtailed the activities of the Campaign.
For many years Wiggs wrote for the satirical current affairs magazine Private Eye
Private Eye
Private Eye is a fortnightly British satirical and current affairs magazine, edited by Ian Hislop.Since its first publication in 1961, Private Eye has been a prominent critic and lampooner of public figures and entities that it deemed guilty of any of the sins of incompetence, inefficiency,...
, initially as aviation correspondent, and later as environment correspondent. He wrote a series entitled "Bricks and Slaughter," exposing malfeasance by the London Brick Company, whose brick-works in Bedfordshire were responsible for sulphur dioxide pollution and the poisoning of local cattle.
A talented amateur musician (playing classical guitar, flute, 'cello, and piano) Wiggs campaigned to save the headquarters of the Rural Music Schools Association, situated in the house and grounds of Little Benslow Hills, Hitchin. His grandfather had been head gardener at the estate, then owned by Esther Seebohm. Upon her death in 1951, she left the property in trust to provide a teaching centre for amateur musicians of all ages. In 1978, a move was made by the then Director and other trustees to close the centre and sell the site for re-development. Wiggs worked tenaciously to prevent the destruction of the estate and preserve the Seebohm legacy, on one occasion recording the proceedings of the Annual General Meeting of the Association with a tape recorder concealed in an umbrella. The coup de grace was his discovery that under the terms of the legacy, the trustees did not actually have the right to sell, and they were forced to resign.
Following the Concorde crash in Paris, July 2000, Wiggs began preparing a revised edition of his 1971 book.
Family
Richard Wiggs married Florence Margaret Street (b.1931, Loughborough, Leicestershire) in 1953, a retired school teacher and former magistrate. They have three daughters: Sarah Wiggs, Belinda Wiggs and Josephine WiggsJosephine Wiggs
Josephine Wiggs is an indie/alternative rock musician, noted for her work with the bands The Perfect Disaster, The Breeders, and Dusty Trails....
.
Media
The Modern Records Centre, at the University of Warwick Library, contains partial archives of the Anti-Concorde Project, comprising publicity material issued by the Project, 1967–1981, minutes and agendas of the Advisory Committee, and subject files compiled by the Secretary of the Project. The collection also includes press cuttings, reports and publications.The 2003 BBC2 documentary, Concorde - A Love Story aired in the US in 2005 as a PBS Nova documentary, Supersonic Dream, and includes archival footage of Wiggs and interviews with family members. As narrator Richard Donat explains: "In Britain, Concorde's nemesis came in the guise of a retired schoolteacher, Richard Wiggs. Working from his family home, his aim was simple: to stop Concorde from flying."
External links
- *http://cache3.asset-cache.net/xc/3268827.jpg?v=1&c=IWSAsset&k=2&d=45B0EB3381F7834D4C40D68B4D772582259842AC6FC8B3895223CE6E4BAF89B1 - Photograph of Dr. Bo Lundberg and Richard Wiggs
- A Life in Science - Autobiography of Sir Nevill Francis Mott
- SST and Sonic Boom Handbook - Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Review
- NOVA, Supersonic Dream - Documentary
- NOVA, Supersonic Dream - Transcript
