Reverse brain drain
Encyclopedia
Reverse brain drain , which refers to the migration issue, whereby human capital
moves in reverse from a more developed country
to a less developed country that is developing rapidly, which is commonly defined as ‘brain drain
’. It is also termed as a logical outcome of a calculated strategy, where migrants accumulate savings, also known as remittances
, and develop skills overseas that can be used in their home country.
Reverse brain drain can occur when scientists, engineers, or other intellectual elites migrate to a less developed country to learn in its universities, perform research, or gain working experience in areas where education and employment opportunities are limited in their home country. These professionals then return to their home country after several years of experience to start a related business, teach in a university, or work for a multi-national in their home country.
The occurrence of reverse brain drain mostly depends on the state of the country’s development
, and also strategies and planning over a long period of time to reverse the migration. Countries that are attractive to returning intelligentsia will naturally develop migration policies to attract foreign academics and professionals. This would also require these countries to develop an environment which will provide rewarding opportunities for those who have attained the knowledge and skills from overseas.
In the past, many of the immigrants from developing countries previously made many personal sacrifices in order to work and live in developed countries; however, the recent economic growth
that is occurring back in their home countries - and the difficulty of attaining long-term work visas - causes many of the immigrants to return home.
and brain gain because reverse brain drain is a migratory phenomenon that results due to the brain drain
of the intellectual elites from developing countries and is similar to benefit of an inflow of high quality human resources which is brain gain.
In addition, reverse brain drain is sometimes related to the term ‘brain circulation’, which is when migrants return to their own country on a regular or occasional basis, sharing the benefits of the skills and resources they have acquired while living and working abroad. An example of the benefits for the host countries, especially developing countries, are the payments of remittances
. This provides a reason for governments to issue new legislation and tax rules that encourage outward migration and remittances.
However, “brain circulation” is known as the extended definition of brain gain with an emphasis on human capital circulation across nations in the global market, benefiting both the sending and receiving nations; in addition it is considered a two-way flow of skill, capital, and technology, unlike brain drain
and reverse brain drain.
, the Minister of State for Corporate and Minority Affairs in India. He states that "Many second-generation Indians are coming back to the country. Therefore, reverse brain drain is no longer limited to the commonly perceived migration from a developed to a developing country by a first generation
individual. Many of the world’s top multinational
companies are beginning to send their top Indian minds to head their companies in India and have the idea of reverse brain drain which is, “So when we lose some, we win many back,"
has generally been seen as a developing country, and they have impacted by brain drain through the migration of their talented minds to the developed world.
What has assisted China in the flow of return migration is through central government policies. These policies are changes in the domestic environment, the freedom to immigrate and emigrate freely, political stability, and changes in how the government uses people. In addition, the local government was involved in the enhancement of return migration by cities rewarding the returnees with large bonuses from their home unit. There are also other reasons which encouraged the migration back to the home country, which were higher social status in China, better carrier opportunities in China, and patriotism.
In addition, competition among universities, research laboratories and enterprises has given the returning intellectual elites excellent incentives. For example, in the new life science school at Beijing’s Tsinghua University, they were able to recruit many Chinese scientists who were previously in more developed countries like the United States due to China’s booming economy, large government investment in research, and the chance to build a science program from the ground up.
Besides the government policies and economic reasons for returning to China, certain family factors influenced the decision to return, some of the reasons where parental views about returning, concerns for children, and the attitude of one’s spouse about returning.
students left for America for a better education and greater employment opportunities. The turning point was during the dot-com bubble
. During this period many information technology
experts were forced to return to India due to the slump and the loss of jobs in the United States.
Previously, the Indian Government was unhappy of the occurrence of brain drain
. Tens of thousands of migrants who had initially come to the U.S. for graduate engineering education, accepted jobs in Silicon Valley
rather than return to their home countries, where professional opportunities were limited.
Besides the dot-com bubble
crisis, the economic and employment opportunities that existed back home; interested many Indian entrepreneurs to improve the economic development in the home country, which increased the number of returning intelligentsias to India.
In addition, other reasons for the returning migration of the Indian high skill workers was due to their desires to return to their roots, a more family oriented lifestyle, and also security concerns in the post 9/11 period where Asian Indians were discriminated against because they were often mistaken for Arabs.
throughout North America, and even Europe, began to return to Pakistan
. Many of these returning expatriates tended to have excellent credentials and due to their professional and cultural background were able to easily assimilate and find new job opportunities in the country - contributing to an overall "reverse brain drain" effect. One notable example is the media boom in Pakistan which inspired and prompted many overseas Pakistanis working in the field of journalism to return to the country and take up readily available positions in the country's largest press groups and channels. Today, there are over 50,000 Britons in Pakistan
, many of whom are of Pakistani origin, who have returned to contribute to the economic development of the country.
Besides the policies, there are also cultural incentives for the intellectual elites to return home which was the desire to improve Korea’s economic conditions and competitiveness, the cultural differences between Korea and America, and family-related responsibilities and concerns. Many of the students who migrated to the United States to study, especially the only son or the eldest of the family, felt obligated to return home to be with the family
had experienced a loss of more than 80 percent of its students who had completed their graduate study in the United States
, but the government of the Republic of China
(ROC) responded to this to increase the return migration of the students. Some of the action taken by the authorities of the Republic of China
were the setting up of the National Youth Commission (NYC), a cabinet-level government office, and other organizations to recruit Taiwan’s scholars abroad and carry out related programs. In addition, Taiwan’s official policy consists of two sections:
One reason behind the increased percentage of college students going abroad and the decline of returnees was due to Taiwan’s Political Status of Taiwan
and the severed diplomatic ties with the ROC government in 1979; however, the percentages of college students study abroad slowly started to increase after the political shock settle.
The two most cited reasons for returning to Taiwan
in 1983 were highly normative pride and strong identification with Taiwan’s developmental goal and desire to be in it. Besides these reasons, there were other social and cultural reasons that were given by the returning migrants which were:
has been implementing public policies, were included in the Program for the Support of Science and Research, which were designed to internationalize the domestic academic market and had the objective to repatriate young Mexican scientists who have obtained a postgraduate degree abroad.
The result of the repatriation and retention of Mexican researchers from 1991–1996 and 2002 shows how there is a general increase of more Mexican researchers to return to Mexico and this can be viewed in the table below :
^ Previously known as Repatriation and Retention
Although these policies have been assisting in the slow returning migration of young Mexican scientists, the policies should be broadened out and not focused exclusively on individual scientists, due to the positive outcomes that may result from repatriation.
, instead of the commonly termed ‘brain drain’, the term ‘reverse transfer of technology’ (RTT) is used to describe the migration of scientists from developing countries to overseas.
In order to prevent the loss of the experts, Africa has observed the “friends and relatives effect”, which identifies professional, societal and personal factors as the three imperatives underlying the decision of African students in the United States to return home. In addition, the most widespread instrument used by African countries to combat the brain drain is bonding, which obligates a graduate to return home for a required period of time before s/he can emigrate or to also have bilateral agreements with developed countries, which will require them to return home immediately upon graduation. These approaches are influenced from the policies that exist and worked in Asian countries.
professionals and academics in the areas of greatest intellectual and economic interest to the developed country. This is a problem since foreign-born professional and academics from developing countries, such as China or India, are increasingly motivated to return to their home countries due to rapid economic growth, increasing living standards, and increasing opportunities in their home country. The reverse migration of the foreign-born professionals and academics leaves developed countries with a lack of intellectual capital. This may lead to economic drawbacks in developed countries and diminishing opportunities for native-born professionals. Statistics show that more than 52% of Silicon Valley’s startups during the recent tech boom were started by foreign-born entrepreneurs. In addition, the “foreign-national researchers have contributed to more than 25% of our global patents… foreign-born workers comprise almost a quarter of all the U.S. science and engineering workforce and 47% of science and engineering workers who have PhDs.” Furthermore, 54% of engineering doctorates went to foreign students, who returned to their home country after graduation, which disheartens the executives of research and development in the developed countries.
Human capital
Human capitalis the stock of competencies, knowledge and personality attributes embodied in the ability to perform labor so as to produce economic value. It is the attributes gained by a worker through education and experience...
moves in reverse from a more developed country
Developed country
A developed country is a country that has a high level of development according to some criteria. Which criteria, and which countries are classified as being developed, is a contentious issue...
to a less developed country that is developing rapidly, which is commonly defined as ‘brain drain
Brain drain
Human capital flight, more commonly referred to as "brain drain", is the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or knowledge. The reasons usually include two aspects which respectively come from countries and individuals...
’. It is also termed as a logical outcome of a calculated strategy, where migrants accumulate savings, also known as remittances
Remittances
A remittance is a transfer of money by a foreign worker to his or her home country. Note that in 19th century usage a remittance man was someone exiled overseas and sent an allowance on condition that he not return home....
, and develop skills overseas that can be used in their home country.
Reverse brain drain can occur when scientists, engineers, or other intellectual elites migrate to a less developed country to learn in its universities, perform research, or gain working experience in areas where education and employment opportunities are limited in their home country. These professionals then return to their home country after several years of experience to start a related business, teach in a university, or work for a multi-national in their home country.
The occurrence of reverse brain drain mostly depends on the state of the country’s development
International development
International development or global development is a concept that lacks a universally accepted definition, but it is most used in a holistic and multi-disciplinary context of human development — the development of greater quality of life for humans...
, and also strategies and planning over a long period of time to reverse the migration. Countries that are attractive to returning intelligentsia will naturally develop migration policies to attract foreign academics and professionals. This would also require these countries to develop an environment which will provide rewarding opportunities for those who have attained the knowledge and skills from overseas.
In the past, many of the immigrants from developing countries previously made many personal sacrifices in order to work and live in developed countries; however, the recent economic growth
Economic growth
In economics, economic growth is defined as the increasing capacity of the economy to satisfy the wants of goods and services of the members of society. Economic growth is enabled by increases in productivity, which lowers the inputs for a given amount of output. Lowered costs increase demand...
that is occurring back in their home countries - and the difficulty of attaining long-term work visas - causes many of the immigrants to return home.
Distinction of Reverse Brain Drain
The term ‘reverse brain drain’ is closely tied with brain drainBrain drain
Human capital flight, more commonly referred to as "brain drain", is the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or knowledge. The reasons usually include two aspects which respectively come from countries and individuals...
and brain gain because reverse brain drain is a migratory phenomenon that results due to the brain drain
Brain drain
Human capital flight, more commonly referred to as "brain drain", is the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or knowledge. The reasons usually include two aspects which respectively come from countries and individuals...
of the intellectual elites from developing countries and is similar to benefit of an inflow of high quality human resources which is brain gain.
In addition, reverse brain drain is sometimes related to the term ‘brain circulation’, which is when migrants return to their own country on a regular or occasional basis, sharing the benefits of the skills and resources they have acquired while living and working abroad. An example of the benefits for the host countries, especially developing countries, are the payments of remittances
Remittances
A remittance is a transfer of money by a foreign worker to his or her home country. Note that in 19th century usage a remittance man was someone exiled overseas and sent an allowance on condition that he not return home....
. This provides a reason for governments to issue new legislation and tax rules that encourage outward migration and remittances.
However, “brain circulation” is known as the extended definition of brain gain with an emphasis on human capital circulation across nations in the global market, benefiting both the sending and receiving nations; in addition it is considered a two-way flow of skill, capital, and technology, unlike brain drain
Brain drain
Human capital flight, more commonly referred to as "brain drain", is the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or knowledge. The reasons usually include two aspects which respectively come from countries and individuals...
and reverse brain drain.
Another Form of Reverse Brain Drain
Recently there is a different type of reverse brain drain developing. This form of reverse brain drain differs from the way it is commonly viewed. It is explained by Salman KhurshidSalman Khurshid
Salman Khurshid is an Indian politician belonging to the Indian National Congress, a lawyer, and a writer who has been elected from Farrukhabad Lok Sabha constituency in the General Election of 2009. He belongs to Farrukhabad. He is presently the Cabinet Minister of the Ministry of Law and Justice...
, the Minister of State for Corporate and Minority Affairs in India. He states that "Many second-generation Indians are coming back to the country. Therefore, reverse brain drain is no longer limited to the commonly perceived migration from a developed to a developing country by a first generation
First generation
The term First Generation can refer to:*First generation immigrant, a citizen or resident who is an immigrant or has immigrant parents*Anything of the earliest kind, often used when describing computers or technology....
individual. Many of the world’s top multinational
Multinational corporation
A multi national corporation or enterprise , is a corporation or an enterprise that manages production or delivers services in more than one country. It can also be referred to as an international corporation...
companies are beginning to send their top Indian minds to head their companies in India and have the idea of reverse brain drain which is, “So when we lose some, we win many back,"
Example of Methods and Policies to Enhance Reverse Brain Drain
The countries where reverse brain drain occurs are developing countries, or are countries who have suffered a significant impact from the ‘brain drain’ from developed countries. Governments have attempted to reverse the flow of brain drain through implementing new contracts, scholarships, government policies, and several other methods. Three methods of implementing and enhancing reverse brain drain are through governments retaining their students, encouraging students to pursue tertiary studies abroad and promoting them to return, and engaging with the diasporas which will encourage expatriates to remit savings, act as bridges for foreign investment and trade, and facilitate the transfer of skills and knowledge. There are several countries that are prime examples of these three methods - and several other methods - which are:China
ChinaChina
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
has generally been seen as a developing country, and they have impacted by brain drain through the migration of their talented minds to the developed world.
What has assisted China in the flow of return migration is through central government policies. These policies are changes in the domestic environment, the freedom to immigrate and emigrate freely, political stability, and changes in how the government uses people. In addition, the local government was involved in the enhancement of return migration by cities rewarding the returnees with large bonuses from their home unit. There are also other reasons which encouraged the migration back to the home country, which were higher social status in China, better carrier opportunities in China, and patriotism.
In addition, competition among universities, research laboratories and enterprises has given the returning intellectual elites excellent incentives. For example, in the new life science school at Beijing’s Tsinghua University, they were able to recruit many Chinese scientists who were previously in more developed countries like the United States due to China’s booming economy, large government investment in research, and the chance to build a science program from the ground up.
Besides the government policies and economic reasons for returning to China, certain family factors influenced the decision to return, some of the reasons where parental views about returning, concerns for children, and the attitude of one’s spouse about returning.
India
India is one of the first countries where the phenomenon of reverse brain drain occurred. Previously, India was well known for being the country where numerous information technologyInformation technology
Information technology is the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by a microelectronics-based combination of computing and telecommunications...
students left for America for a better education and greater employment opportunities. The turning point was during the dot-com bubble
Dot-com bubble
The dot-com bubble was a speculative bubble covering roughly 1995–2000 during which stock markets in industrialized nations saw their equity value rise rapidly from growth in the more...
. During this period many information technology
Information technology
Information technology is the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by a microelectronics-based combination of computing and telecommunications...
experts were forced to return to India due to the slump and the loss of jobs in the United States.
Previously, the Indian Government was unhappy of the occurrence of brain drain
Brain drain
Human capital flight, more commonly referred to as "brain drain", is the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or knowledge. The reasons usually include two aspects which respectively come from countries and individuals...
. Tens of thousands of migrants who had initially come to the U.S. for graduate engineering education, accepted jobs in Silicon Valley
Silicon Valley
Silicon Valley is a term which refers to the southern part of the San Francisco Bay Area in Northern California in the United States. The region is home to many of the world's largest technology corporations...
rather than return to their home countries, where professional opportunities were limited.
Besides the dot-com bubble
Dot-com bubble
The dot-com bubble was a speculative bubble covering roughly 1995–2000 during which stock markets in industrialized nations saw their equity value rise rapidly from growth in the more...
crisis, the economic and employment opportunities that existed back home; interested many Indian entrepreneurs to improve the economic development in the home country, which increased the number of returning intelligentsias to India.
In addition, other reasons for the returning migration of the Indian high skill workers was due to their desires to return to their roots, a more family oriented lifestyle, and also security concerns in the post 9/11 period where Asian Indians were discriminated against because they were often mistaken for Arabs.
Pakistan
In wake of the September 11 attacks and the financial crisis of 2007–2010, a large number of expatriates forming the Pakistani diasporaPakistani diaspora
The Pakistani diaspora, or an overseas Pakistani is a Pakistani citizen who has migrated to another country or a person of Pakistani origin who is born outside Pakistan. There are approximately 7 million Pakistanis living abroad...
throughout North America, and even Europe, began to return to Pakistan
Pakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
. Many of these returning expatriates tended to have excellent credentials and due to their professional and cultural background were able to easily assimilate and find new job opportunities in the country - contributing to an overall "reverse brain drain" effect. One notable example is the media boom in Pakistan which inspired and prompted many overseas Pakistanis working in the field of journalism to return to the country and take up readily available positions in the country's largest press groups and channels. Today, there are over 50,000 Britons in Pakistan
Britons in Pakistan
Britons in Pakistan consist of British people and their descendants who emigrated from the United Kingdom. A sizeable number of Britons in Pakistan are British Pakistanis, descendants of Pakistani immigrants to the UK prior to their return...
, many of whom are of Pakistani origin, who have returned to contribute to the economic development of the country.
South Korea
South Korea’s reverse brain drain was different from the social phenomenon because it was based on an organized government effort with various policies and the political support of President Park Chung Hee. The main features of Korea’s Reverse Brain Drain policies were the creation of a conducive domestic environment, and the empowerment of returnees.Besides the policies, there are also cultural incentives for the intellectual elites to return home which was the desire to improve Korea’s economic conditions and competitiveness, the cultural differences between Korea and America, and family-related responsibilities and concerns. Many of the students who migrated to the United States to study, especially the only son or the eldest of the family, felt obligated to return home to be with the family
Taiwan
Previously, TaiwanTaiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
had experienced a loss of more than 80 percent of its students who had completed their graduate study in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, but the government of the Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
(ROC) responded to this to increase the return migration of the students. Some of the action taken by the authorities of the Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
were the setting up of the National Youth Commission (NYC), a cabinet-level government office, and other organizations to recruit Taiwan’s scholars abroad and carry out related programs. In addition, Taiwan’s official policy consists of two sections:
- Improve and strengthen the institutions of higher learning at home
- Encourage Taiwan’s “brain” in the United StatesUnited StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
to remigrate and/or contribute their talents and knowledge to Taiwan’s national development.
One reason behind the increased percentage of college students going abroad and the decline of returnees was due to Taiwan’s Political Status of Taiwan
Political status
In international law three categories of Political status are usually recognized:#Independent countries e.g.: France, Canada#Internal independent countries which are under the protection of another country in matters of defense and foreign affairs, e.g.: Netherlands Antilles, the Faroe Islands,...
and the severed diplomatic ties with the ROC government in 1979; however, the percentages of college students study abroad slowly started to increase after the political shock settle.
The two most cited reasons for returning to Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
in 1983 were highly normative pride and strong identification with Taiwan’s developmental goal and desire to be in it. Besides these reasons, there were other social and cultural reasons that were given by the returning migrants which were:
- Never thought of staying in the U.S.
- I have wife and children in Taiwan
- My parents wanted me to come home
- I was offered an ideal job in Taiwan
- I could not find an ideal spouse in the U.S.
- I was discriminated against in the U.S.
- I could not find a good job in the U.S.
Mexico
The federal government of MexicoMexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
has been implementing public policies, were included in the Program for the Support of Science and Research, which were designed to internationalize the domestic academic market and had the objective to repatriate young Mexican scientists who have obtained a postgraduate degree abroad.
The result of the repatriation and retention of Mexican researchers from 1991–1996 and 2002 shows how there is a general increase of more Mexican researchers to return to Mexico and this can be viewed in the table below :
| 1991 | 1992 | 1993 | 1994 | 1995 | 1996 | 2002 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mexican Researchers^ | 96 | 257 | 160 | 267 | 174 | 195 | 172 |
^ Previously known as Repatriation and Retention
Although these policies have been assisting in the slow returning migration of young Mexican scientists, the policies should be broadened out and not focused exclusively on individual scientists, due to the positive outcomes that may result from repatriation.
Africa
In AfricaAfrica
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
, instead of the commonly termed ‘brain drain’, the term ‘reverse transfer of technology’ (RTT) is used to describe the migration of scientists from developing countries to overseas.
In order to prevent the loss of the experts, Africa has observed the “friends and relatives effect”, which identifies professional, societal and personal factors as the three imperatives underlying the decision of African students in the United States to return home. In addition, the most widespread instrument used by African countries to combat the brain drain is bonding, which obligates a graduate to return home for a required period of time before s/he can emigrate or to also have bilateral agreements with developed countries, which will require them to return home immediately upon graduation. These approaches are influenced from the policies that exist and worked in Asian countries.
Problems associated with Reverse Brain Drain
The problem of a reverse brain drain is exacerbated by anxiety in developed countries. This is of particular concern in the United States of America, where not enough undergraduate students are seeking advanced degrees at the doctorate level. This leads to several consequences. Initially, it increases the widespread replacement of native-born with foreign bornForeign born
Foreign born is a term used to describe a person born outside of their country of residence. Foreign born are often non-citizens, but are also frequently naturalized citizens of a country....
professionals and academics in the areas of greatest intellectual and economic interest to the developed country. This is a problem since foreign-born professional and academics from developing countries, such as China or India, are increasingly motivated to return to their home countries due to rapid economic growth, increasing living standards, and increasing opportunities in their home country. The reverse migration of the foreign-born professionals and academics leaves developed countries with a lack of intellectual capital. This may lead to economic drawbacks in developed countries and diminishing opportunities for native-born professionals. Statistics show that more than 52% of Silicon Valley’s startups during the recent tech boom were started by foreign-born entrepreneurs. In addition, the “foreign-national researchers have contributed to more than 25% of our global patents… foreign-born workers comprise almost a quarter of all the U.S. science and engineering workforce and 47% of science and engineering workers who have PhDs.” Furthermore, 54% of engineering doctorates went to foreign students, who returned to their home country after graduation, which disheartens the executives of research and development in the developed countries.
See also
- brain drainBrain drainHuman capital flight, more commonly referred to as "brain drain", is the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or knowledge. The reasons usually include two aspects which respectively come from countries and individuals...
- brain gain
- diasporaDiasporaA diaspora is "the movement, migration, or scattering of people away from an established or ancestral homeland" or "people dispersed by whatever cause to more than one location", or "people settled far from their ancestral homelands".The word has come to refer to historical mass-dispersions of...
- dot-com bubbleDot-com bubbleThe dot-com bubble was a speculative bubble covering roughly 1995–2000 during which stock markets in industrialized nations saw their equity value rise rapidly from growth in the more...
- human capitalHuman capitalHuman capitalis the stock of competencies, knowledge and personality attributes embodied in the ability to perform labor so as to produce economic value. It is the attributes gained by a worker through education and experience...
- international students
- remittancesRemittancesA remittance is a transfer of money by a foreign worker to his or her home country. Note that in 19th century usage a remittance man was someone exiled overseas and sent an allowance on condition that he not return home....
- student migrationStudent migrationStudent migration is the movement of students who study outside their country of birth or citizenship for a period of 12 months or more. During the period of globalisation, the internationalisation of higher education increased dramatically and it has become a market driven activity...
External links
- The reverse brain drain - by Doug Sanders
- NASA scientists want jobs with ISRO after ChandrayaanChandrayaanChandrayaan-1 was India's first unmanned lunar probe. It was launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation in October 2008, and operated until August 2009. The mission included a lunar orbiter and an impactor...