Student migration
Encyclopedia
Student migration is the movement of students who study outside their country of birth or citizenship for a period of 12 months or more. During the period of globalisation, the internationalisation of higher education increased dramatically and it has become a market driven activity. With the rapid rise of international education
more and more students are seeking higher education in foreign countries and many international student
s now consider overseas study a stepping-stone to permanent residency within a country. The contributions that foreign students make to host nation economies, both culturally and financially has encouraged major players to implement further initiatives to facilitate the arrival and integration of overseas students, including substantial amendments to immigration
and visa policies and procedures.
. The concept of studying abroad was based on the assumption that graduates would return to their homeland to serve colonial administration once they had developed skills and absorbed the values of the colonial rulers.
The Cold War
era had a significant impact on foreign aid and the funding of overseas students. The policy of distributing scientific knowledge and sharing industrial progress with the developing world required the help of higher education institutions. Support for USAID linked the foreign policy mission with support to higher education. Cold war rivals funded study abroad programmes and were in competition to attract students from the developing world.
One of the most famous international exchange programmes which facilitates and encourages international student migration is the Fulbright Program
. Established in 1946, The Fulbright Program provides grants for students, scholars, teachers and professionals to undertake various studies and research. The Fulbright Program was initially funded by using proceeds from the sales of surplus war property and was founded on the principal of promoting "international good will through the exchange of students in the fields of education, culture and science".
The Colombo Plan
was another program that encouraged the movement of students between countries. The Colombo Plan was established in 1951 with the intention of strengthening economic and social development of the Asia Pacific region. The Colombo Plan has been responsible for sponsoring over 40 thousand Asian students to study or train in Australian higher education institutions. Funding for students is provided by member countries, which includes a mixture of 26 Commonwealth and non Commonwealth countries.
Since the colonial and Cold War eras, the profile of international students has made a significant shift. The way in which students travel has changed over time and the majority of students seeking education abroad are now self-funded.
market has become an important source of revenue for local economies and many institutions rely heavily on the income brought by cross-border students. Receiving countries stand to benefit a lot from qualified skilled migrants who make considerable contributions to their new countries.
In most host countries higher education used to be tuition fee-free. Up until the 1980s many countries did not have any provision for levying fees from domestic and international students. The UK was the first to introduce fees for overseas students and other countries, such as Australia began to follow suit.
The international market for students now accounts for billions of dollars and subsequently competition between institutions is fierce. Studying abroad is expensive and in most cases is funded by the individual.
In OECD countries there are 3 different patterns to the levying of fees:
1. In some countries fees for international students are higher than domestic students. This occurs in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK and the USA.
2. Some countries make no distinction between international and domestic student fees. Tuition fees remain the same for foreign and domestic students in France, Greece, Hungary, Italy and Japan.
3. Countries such as Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden have not begun levying tuition fees from foreign students.
OECD countries receive approximately 85% of the world’s foreign students with the majority concentrated in just 6 countries. In 2007, the United States
accounted for 21.4% of foreign enrolments, the United Kingdom
12.6%, France
8.8%, Australia
7.6%, Germany
7.4%, and Japan
4.5%.
The main region receiving foreign students is Europe
, which has approx. 840,000 international students. However the majority of this figure comes from students moving from one European country to another.
East Asia
and the Pacific top the list for sending students and accounts for 29% of all international higher education students. (Students from China
account for 15% of this total.) North America
and Western Europe
account for 18%, then Central and East Europe 11%, South and West Asia 9%, Arab States 7% and Sub Saharan Africa 5.8%.
Many developing countries have an under supply of university places to satisfy demand and as a result students have no other choice but to study abroad
. In addition to this it is a common expectation that studying overseas can enhance professional business opportunities. Generally, students seeking cross-border education migrate to countries with more developed education institutions than their own. For example, students in Arab countries migrate to Egypt and Jordan to pursue their studies, and many students from Bangladesh and Nepal travel to India.
The flow of students from developing countries to developed countries is often due to the belief that the quality and standards of education offered in OECD countries is superior to what is offered in the country of origin.
Higher education has become a major global export commodity with developing countries capitalising on domestic shortages by recruiting foreign students. Subsequently, changes to visa and immigration policies have provided incentives for students to travel abroad and potentially offer a gateway to permanent residency within a host nation. Migration opportunities are one of the major contributions to the growth of student migration. A 2006 survey, undertaken by Australia’s Monash University, produced statistics which showed 75% of Indian students who completed university education in Australia applied for and were granted residency. The author of the research, Michiel Bass suggests that the most influential reason Indian students studied in Australia was not because of academic reputation, but the opportunity to gain permanent residency.
An important factor contributing to student migration is the desire to study in a language other than the student's first language. For example, a growth in the number of students travelling to study in the UK from Central and Eastern Europe has been partially attributed to the wish "to study in a higher education environment where communication is in English".
Other factors for the rise in student migration include lowering travel expenses and greater communication technology which has made studying abroad more accessible.
to the US.
Visa and immigration policies in the US are (arguably) significantly less accommodating towards international students and graduates compared to other host countries. The greatest changes to visa regulations occurred after the attacks of September 11, 2001, when the US immediately implemented tougher visa and immigration requirements. Under the Enhanced Border Security and Visas Entry Reform Act (2002) the US introduced a new overseas student tax in order to fund an advanced computer tracking system for visa applications, but also made it more difficult for applicants to transfer between visa categories.
However, recently the US Department of State has established a new internship scheme which has been specifically designed for foreign students. Since July 2007, certain international students are eligible to participate in a year long internship per degree level for practical training as long as they can describe how the experience can enhance their education.
The Government has also made a special provision for internationally-coveted Masters of Business Administration (MBA) students, allowing graduates of 50 highly ranked business schools to apply for a three year extension to their one year working visa once their studies have been completed.
As part of the Highly Skilled Migrant Programme
(HSMP), such students have been eligible to apply for permanent residence
since 12 April 2005. The Government further extended opportunities for non EU/EEA students in 2007, which allows all students who have completed degree programmes in the UK the opportunity to stay in the UK for employment purposes. The International Graduates Scheme
has been in operation since 1 May 2007.
However, in March 2011, the UK Government made an announcement on reforming student visa system, which is getting much stricter. The major changes in student immigration policies including tougher requirements for entrance, tightening work entitlements and closing the post-study work route are aimed at ensuring the UK welcomes the best overseas students with expected contribution.
In France, international students have the right to work part time for up to 19 hours per week whilst studying. Students must, however, have a valid residency permit and be enrolled in an institution which participates in the French social protection system. Upon completion of studies, students are able to accept offers of employment from French firms by applying for temporary employment authorization.
requirements when applying for general skilled migration, but new legislation introduced on September 1, 2007 requires authorities to provide ‘temporary visas’ to enable applicants such experience. These changes have been made to strengthen links between study, work experience and employment in order to ensure skilled migrants have the skills that Australian employers are looking for. The main rationale behind these schemes is the desire for Australia to benefit from the skills of foreign graduates.
Under the Post-Graduation Work Permit Programmes, international graduates from Canadian higher education institutions are eligible to apply for employment of up to two years.
In July 2007, amendments were made to the Skilled Migrant Category which gives students the opportunity to earn bonus points for recognized New Zealand higher education qualifications or for two years of full-time study in the country. In addition, the number of years to require points for work experience in New Zealand will be reduced and international students may be eligible to apply for a work visa for up to two year upon completion of their studies in the country.
for further information.
Differences in learning cultures is an issue in student migration. This means that the students can have difficulty if the teaching, learning and assessment methods are very different to those in their previous education . For example, some European students studying in Britain have been noted as having little experience of a number of tasks typically expected of British students while many are familiar "with only traditional forms of assessment such as examinations" .
International education
International education can mean many different things and its definition is debated. Some have defined two general meanings according to its involvement of students...
more and more students are seeking higher education in foreign countries and many international student
International student
According to Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development , international students are those who travel to a country different from their own for the purpose of tertiary study. Despite that, the definition of international students varies in each country in accordance to their own national...
s now consider overseas study a stepping-stone to permanent residency within a country. The contributions that foreign students make to host nation economies, both culturally and financially has encouraged major players to implement further initiatives to facilitate the arrival and integration of overseas students, including substantial amendments to immigration
Immigration
Immigration is the act of foreigners passing or coming into a country for the purpose of permanent residence...
and visa policies and procedures.
History
During the colonial period, the majority of student flow came from colonies to the world capitals. Imperial governments provided pathways for selected nationals to pursue higher educationHigher education
Higher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education refers to the stage of learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology...
. The concept of studying abroad was based on the assumption that graduates would return to their homeland to serve colonial administration once they had developed skills and absorbed the values of the colonial rulers.
The Cold War
Cold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
era had a significant impact on foreign aid and the funding of overseas students. The policy of distributing scientific knowledge and sharing industrial progress with the developing world required the help of higher education institutions. Support for USAID linked the foreign policy mission with support to higher education. Cold war rivals funded study abroad programmes and were in competition to attract students from the developing world.
One of the most famous international exchange programmes which facilitates and encourages international student migration is the Fulbright Program
Fulbright Program
The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright-Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the...
. Established in 1946, The Fulbright Program provides grants for students, scholars, teachers and professionals to undertake various studies and research. The Fulbright Program was initially funded by using proceeds from the sales of surplus war property and was founded on the principal of promoting "international good will through the exchange of students in the fields of education, culture and science".
The Colombo Plan
Colombo Plan
The Colombo Plan is a regional organization that embodies the concept of collective inter-governmental effort to strengthen economic and social development of member countries in the Asia-Pacific Region...
was another program that encouraged the movement of students between countries. The Colombo Plan was established in 1951 with the intention of strengthening economic and social development of the Asia Pacific region. The Colombo Plan has been responsible for sponsoring over 40 thousand Asian students to study or train in Australian higher education institutions. Funding for students is provided by member countries, which includes a mixture of 26 Commonwealth and non Commonwealth countries.
Since the colonial and Cold War eras, the profile of international students has made a significant shift. The way in which students travel has changed over time and the majority of students seeking education abroad are now self-funded.
Financing and cost
The international studentInternational student
According to Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development , international students are those who travel to a country different from their own for the purpose of tertiary study. Despite that, the definition of international students varies in each country in accordance to their own national...
market has become an important source of revenue for local economies and many institutions rely heavily on the income brought by cross-border students. Receiving countries stand to benefit a lot from qualified skilled migrants who make considerable contributions to their new countries.
In most host countries higher education used to be tuition fee-free. Up until the 1980s many countries did not have any provision for levying fees from domestic and international students. The UK was the first to introduce fees for overseas students and other countries, such as Australia began to follow suit.
The international market for students now accounts for billions of dollars and subsequently competition between institutions is fierce. Studying abroad is expensive and in most cases is funded by the individual.
In OECD countries there are 3 different patterns to the levying of fees:
1. In some countries fees for international students are higher than domestic students. This occurs in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK and the USA.
2. Some countries make no distinction between international and domestic student fees. Tuition fees remain the same for foreign and domestic students in France, Greece, Hungary, Italy and Japan.
3. Countries such as Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden have not begun levying tuition fees from foreign students.
Destination countries
Between 1963 and 2006 the number of students studying in a foreign country increased 9 times. In 2006 there were 2.7 million students studying abroad and there are predictions that the demand for cross-border education will increase to 7.2 million by 2025.OECD countries receive approximately 85% of the world’s foreign students with the majority concentrated in just 6 countries. In 2007, the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
accounted for 21.4% of foreign enrolments, the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
12.6%, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
8.8%, Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
7.6%, Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
7.4%, and Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
4.5%.
The main region receiving foreign students is Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
, which has approx. 840,000 international students. However the majority of this figure comes from students moving from one European country to another.
East Asia
East Asia
East Asia or Eastern Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms...
and the Pacific top the list for sending students and accounts for 29% of all international higher education students. (Students from China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
account for 15% of this total.) North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
and Western Europe
Western Europe
Western Europe is a loose term for the collection of countries in the western most region of the European continents, though this definition is context-dependent and carries cultural and political connotations. One definition describes Western Europe as a geographic entity—the region lying in the...
account for 18%, then Central and East Europe 11%, South and West Asia 9%, Arab States 7% and Sub Saharan Africa 5.8%.
Contributing factors to growth in student migration
There are many factors contributing to the growing numbers of student migration.Many developing countries have an under supply of university places to satisfy demand and as a result students have no other choice but to study abroad
Study abroad
Studying abroad is the act of a student pursuing educational opportunities in a country other than one's own. This can include primary, secondary and post-secondary students...
. In addition to this it is a common expectation that studying overseas can enhance professional business opportunities. Generally, students seeking cross-border education migrate to countries with more developed education institutions than their own. For example, students in Arab countries migrate to Egypt and Jordan to pursue their studies, and many students from Bangladesh and Nepal travel to India.
The flow of students from developing countries to developed countries is often due to the belief that the quality and standards of education offered in OECD countries is superior to what is offered in the country of origin.
Higher education has become a major global export commodity with developing countries capitalising on domestic shortages by recruiting foreign students. Subsequently, changes to visa and immigration policies have provided incentives for students to travel abroad and potentially offer a gateway to permanent residency within a host nation. Migration opportunities are one of the major contributions to the growth of student migration. A 2006 survey, undertaken by Australia’s Monash University, produced statistics which showed 75% of Indian students who completed university education in Australia applied for and were granted residency. The author of the research, Michiel Bass suggests that the most influential reason Indian students studied in Australia was not because of academic reputation, but the opportunity to gain permanent residency.
An important factor contributing to student migration is the desire to study in a language other than the student's first language. For example, a growth in the number of students travelling to study in the UK from Central and Eastern Europe has been partially attributed to the wish "to study in a higher education environment where communication is in English".
Other factors for the rise in student migration include lowering travel expenses and greater communication technology which has made studying abroad more accessible.
United States
The US attracts a large number of foreigners to its workforce each year, however international graduates of US institutions do not automatically have the right to remain in the country for work purposes upon completion of their course. In fact, as part of the student application process, applicants must state that they are not planning to emigrateEmigrate
Emigrate is a heavy metal band based in New York, led by Richard Z. Kruspe, the lead guitarist of the German band Rammstein.-History:Kruspe started the band in 2005, when Rammstein decided to take a year off from touring and recording...
to the US.
Visa and immigration policies in the US are (arguably) significantly less accommodating towards international students and graduates compared to other host countries. The greatest changes to visa regulations occurred after the attacks of September 11, 2001, when the US immediately implemented tougher visa and immigration requirements. Under the Enhanced Border Security and Visas Entry Reform Act (2002) the US introduced a new overseas student tax in order to fund an advanced computer tracking system for visa applications, but also made it more difficult for applicants to transfer between visa categories.
However, recently the US Department of State has established a new internship scheme which has been specifically designed for foreign students. Since July 2007, certain international students are eligible to participate in a year long internship per degree level for practical training as long as they can describe how the experience can enhance their education.
United Kingdom
In 2006, as part of a larger scheme to attract highly skilled labour, the UK government made amendments to the Science and Engineering Graduate Scheme (SEGS) which enabled all international students who have completed a post-graduate degree course (Master’s of PhD starting after 1 May 2006) to remain in the UK and seek employment for up to 12 months regardless of discipline.The Government has also made a special provision for internationally-coveted Masters of Business Administration (MBA) students, allowing graduates of 50 highly ranked business schools to apply for a three year extension to their one year working visa once their studies have been completed.
As part of the Highly Skilled Migrant Programme
Highly Skilled Migrant Programme
The Highly Skilled Migrant Programme was a scheme, which has now been phased out, that was designed to allow highly skilled people to immigrate into the United Kingdom to look for work or self-employment opportunities. It was different from the standard UK work permit scheme in that applicants did...
(HSMP), such students have been eligible to apply for permanent residence
Permanent residence
Permanent residence may refer to:* Permanent Residence * Permanent residence * Permanent residency* Permanent resident...
since 12 April 2005. The Government further extended opportunities for non EU/EEA students in 2007, which allows all students who have completed degree programmes in the UK the opportunity to stay in the UK for employment purposes. The International Graduates Scheme
International Graduates Scheme
The International Graduates Scheme was a UK immigration scheme which was launched on 1 May 2007 and ended on 30 June 2008, when it was replaced by Tier 1 . It allowed non-EEA nationals who successfully complete a relevant UK degree or postgraduate qualification to work or set up a business in the...
has been in operation since 1 May 2007.
However, in March 2011, the UK Government made an announcement on reforming student visa system, which is getting much stricter. The major changes in student immigration policies including tougher requirements for entrance, tightening work entitlements and closing the post-study work route are aimed at ensuring the UK welcomes the best overseas students with expected contribution.
Germany & France
Since January 2005, Germany has issued singular permits for both residence and employment in an effort to attract international students and skilled migrants to the country and facilitate their arrival. Overseas students are also eligible to apply for an extension on their residence permit for up to one year for the purpose of seeking employment which is relevant to their field of study upon completion of their studies.In France, international students have the right to work part time for up to 19 hours per week whilst studying. Students must, however, have a valid residency permit and be enrolled in an institution which participates in the French social protection system. Upon completion of studies, students are able to accept offers of employment from French firms by applying for temporary employment authorization.
Australia
In addition to Australia’s points system, which encourages skilled migration, Australian regulations allow all international students completing an Australian degree to remain in the country for 18 months upon graduating. Students can earn bonus points for skilled work experience and English-language proficiency in addition to those already earned for Australian qualifications, under amendments to the General Skilled Migration Programme (GSM). Previously international students were exempt from work experienceWork experience
Work experience is the experience that a person has been working, or worked in a specific field or occupation.- Volunteer work and internships :...
requirements when applying for general skilled migration, but new legislation introduced on September 1, 2007 requires authorities to provide ‘temporary visas’ to enable applicants such experience. These changes have been made to strengthen links between study, work experience and employment in order to ensure skilled migrants have the skills that Australian employers are looking for. The main rationale behind these schemes is the desire for Australia to benefit from the skills of foreign graduates.
Canada
International students travelling to Canada are not required to apply for a study visa unless the programmes they are enrolled in are longer than 6 months. Acquiring a study permit, does however have significant benefits to students, giving them permission to seek part-time employment on campus and since April 2006, off campus, for up to 20 hours per week whilst they are completing their studies.Under the Post-Graduation Work Permit Programmes, international graduates from Canadian higher education institutions are eligible to apply for employment of up to two years.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, international students are not required to apply for a student visa if they are studying for a course which is less than three months in duration. Under certain circumstances international students can seek part-time employment for up to 20 hours per week whilst studying (full time) in a course that at least 6 months in duration.In July 2007, amendments were made to the Skilled Migrant Category which gives students the opportunity to earn bonus points for recognized New Zealand higher education qualifications or for two years of full-time study in the country. In addition, the number of years to require points for work experience in New Zealand will be reduced and international students may be eligible to apply for a work visa for up to two year upon completion of their studies in the country.
Issues that can arise with student migration
The loss of students from sending countries can have a rather detrimental impact on the economy by depleting already scarce resources. Brain drain is a term used to describe the large scale loss of individuals with technical skills or knowledge. Please see brain drainBrain drain
Human capital flight, more commonly referred to as "brain drain", is the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or knowledge. The reasons usually include two aspects which respectively come from countries and individuals...
for further information.
Differences in learning cultures is an issue in student migration. This means that the students can have difficulty if the teaching, learning and assessment methods are very different to those in their previous education . For example, some European students studying in Britain have been noted as having little experience of a number of tasks typically expected of British students while many are familiar "with only traditional forms of assessment such as examinations" .
See also
- Immigration policyImmigration policyAn immigration policy is any policy of a state that deals with the transit of persons across its borders into the country, but especially those that intend to work and to remain in the country. Immigration policies can range from allowing no migration at all to allowing most types of migration,...
- Brain drainBrain drainHuman capital flight, more commonly referred to as "brain drain", is the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or knowledge. The reasons usually include two aspects which respectively come from countries and individuals...
- International studentInternational studentAccording to Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development , international students are those who travel to a country different from their own for the purpose of tertiary study. Despite that, the definition of international students varies in each country in accordance to their own national...
- Student exchangeStudent ExchangeStudent Exchange is a 1987 television film directed by Mollie Miller.-Plot:Carole and Neil, two nerdy teenagers, get only perfect grades but have no social skills. When Carole learns that two foreign exchange students from France and Italy have gone to another school, they grab their chance and...
- Fulbright ProgramFulbright ProgramThe Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright-Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the...
- Colombo PlanColombo PlanThe Colombo Plan is a regional organization that embodies the concept of collective inter-governmental effort to strengthen economic and social development of member countries in the Asia-Pacific Region...
- PFL EducationPFL EducationPFL EducationPFL Education was founded in 1997 and incorporated as a Private Limited Company in the UK in 1999.PFL claims to be one of the fastest growing international education services in the world, with staff in the the UK, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Dubai, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and...