Red-headed Krait
Encyclopedia
The red-headed krait is a large and magnificent venomous elapid snake with dramatic coloration. The red-headed krait can grow up to 2.1 m (6 ft. 11 in.). The red-headed krait occurs in lowland rain forest, including those on islands, but it is considered uncommon. It feeds primarily on specific snakes, probably semi-aquatic and fossorial snakes. In southeast Asia
, the red-headed krait occurs in Malaysia, Thailand
, Sumatra
and a subspecies
in Borneo. The venom
potency
is little-studied as bites from this species
are extremely rare.
, S Myanmar
(= Burma), Cambodia
, Vietnam
, W Malaysia, Pulau Tioman, Indonesia
(Bangka
, Sumatra
, Java, Billiton, Borneo). The subspecies Bungarus flaviceps baluensis is found in Malaysia (East Malaysia, Sabah). Red-headed kraits inhabit jungle mostly in hilly or mountainous country.
and hilly regions. They are hardly ever to be found in humans habitats. Red-headed kraits are nocturnal, partially aquatic
creatures
. Once thought to feed primarily on other snakes, they are known to include in their diet
skinks, lizards, frogs, caecilians, small mammals, and snake eggs. Despite the red-headed krait's intrinsic deadliness, it isn't usually considered of high risk to humans in the daytime. Variously described as sluggish, lethargic, and extremely inoffensive, they often remain hidden during the day and, when disturbed, press their head into the ground or hide it in the flattened or rolled coils of the body. during the night they are active and extremely dangerous.
ry bones, with inlets at the bases and outlets near their tips. The venom is ducted to the inlet and forced through the hole at the tip of the fang.
, preventing communication across neuromuscular synapses and in paralysis
and death by asphyxiation because the victims can no longer breath on their own. When the venom from the red-headed krait takes effect, the most highly innervated muscles are the first to suffer: the muscle that elevates the upper eyelid and the ocular
and ciliary muscles controlling the lens. Between 20 minutes and several hours after being bitten, the victim may have a real struggle to keep his or her eyelids open, with other common manifestations being vomiting, blurred vision, headache and hypersalivation
. Then the symptoms of paralysis
may worsen, with progressive involvement of various muscles, including those of the jaws, in some cases, become locked. Respiratory distress
may occur as a result of paralysis of the diaphragm
, the main muscle controlling breathing. Its venom also contains a novel postsynaptic neurotoxin, termed κ-flavitoxin, which is a potent inhibitor of nicotinic transmission in autonomic
ganglia. Neurotoxic symptoms may resolve naturally, or more rapidly through administration of antivenin
or drugs that inactivate acetylcholinesterase
, an enzyme
which naturally destroys the chemical messenger carrying siganls from nerves to muscles at the neuromuscular synapse
.
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
, the red-headed krait occurs in Malaysia, Thailand
Thailand
Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...
, Sumatra
Sumatra
Sumatra is an island in western Indonesia, westernmost of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island entirely in Indonesia , and the sixth largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 with a population of 50,365,538...
and a subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
in Borneo. The venom
Venom
Venom is the general term referring to any variety of toxins used by certain types of animals that inject it into their victims by the means of a bite or a sting...
potency
Potency (pharmacology)
In the field of pharmacology, potency is a measure of drug activity expressed in terms of the amount required to produce an effect of given intensity. A highly potent drug evokes a larger response at low concentrations, while a drug of lower potency evokes a small response at low concentrations...
is little-studied as bites from this species
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
are extremely rare.
Geographic distribution
The red-headed krait can be rarely spotted in S ThailandThailand
Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...
, S Myanmar
Myanmar
Burma , officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar , is a country in Southeast Asia. Burma is bordered by China on the northeast, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, India on the northwest, the Bay of Bengal to the southwest, and the Andaman Sea on the south....
(= Burma), Cambodia
Cambodia
Cambodia , officially known as the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia...
, Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
, W Malaysia, Pulau Tioman, Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
(Bangka
Bangka Island
Bangka is an island lying east of Sumatra, Indonesia. Population 626,955. Area: c.4,600 sq mi .There is an additional small island named Pulau Bangka in northern Sulawesi, Indonesia.-Geography:...
, Sumatra
Sumatra
Sumatra is an island in western Indonesia, westernmost of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island entirely in Indonesia , and the sixth largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 with a population of 50,365,538...
, Java, Billiton, Borneo). The subspecies Bungarus flaviceps baluensis is found in Malaysia (East Malaysia, Sabah). Red-headed kraits inhabit jungle mostly in hilly or mountainous country.
Habitat and behavior
The red-headed krait inhabits the rain forests in mountainMountain
Image:Himalaya_annotated.jpg|thumb|right|The Himalayan mountain range with Mount Everestrect 58 14 160 49 Chomo Lonzorect 200 28 335 52 Makalurect 378 24 566 45 Mount Everestrect 188 581 920 656 Tibetan Plateaurect 250 406 340 427 Rong River...
and hilly regions. They are hardly ever to be found in humans habitats. Red-headed kraits are nocturnal, partially aquatic
Aquatic animal
An aquatic animal is an animal, either vertebrate or invertebrate, which lives in water for most or all of its life. It may breathe air or extract its oxygen from that dissolved in water through specialised organs called gills, or directly through its skin. Natural environments and the animals that...
creatures
Animal
Animals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and...
. Once thought to feed primarily on other snakes, they are known to include in their diet
Diet (nutrition)
In nutrition, diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. Dietary habits are the habitual decisions an individual or culture makes when choosing what foods to eat. With the word diet, it is often implied the use of specific intake of nutrition for health or weight-management...
skinks, lizards, frogs, caecilians, small mammals, and snake eggs. Despite the red-headed krait's intrinsic deadliness, it isn't usually considered of high risk to humans in the daytime. Variously described as sluggish, lethargic, and extremely inoffensive, they often remain hidden during the day and, when disturbed, press their head into the ground or hide it in the flattened or rolled coils of the body. during the night they are active and extremely dangerous.
Characteristics
It presents a very striking and distinctive coloration – namely a bright red head and tail with a black body that includes a low-lateral narrow bluish white stripe. Having large, smooth scales, the general appearance of red-headed kraits is glossy and attractive. The extremely rare red-headed krait's nature is inoffensive, and captives will generally refuse to strike until they have been subjected to prolonged teasing. The average length of a red-headed krait is 4 to 5 feet (1.2-1.5 m), maxing out at 7 feet (2.1 m). They have short, hollow fangs on their maxillaMaxilla
The maxilla is a fusion of two bones along the palatal fissure that form the upper jaw. This is similar to the mandible , which is also a fusion of two halves at the mental symphysis. Sometimes The maxilla (plural: maxillae) is a fusion of two bones along the palatal fissure that form the upper...
ry bones, with inlets at the bases and outlets near their tips. The venom is ducted to the inlet and forced through the hole at the tip of the fang.
Envenomation
Bungarus flaviceps is an extremely venomous snake. Krait venom appears to function primarily as a neurotoxinNeurotoxin
A neurotoxin is a toxin that acts specifically on nerve cells , usually by interacting with membrane proteins such as ion channels. Some sources are more general, and define the effect of neurotoxins as occurring at nerve tissue...
, preventing communication across neuromuscular synapses and in paralysis
Paralysis
Paralysis is loss of muscle function for one or more muscles. Paralysis can be accompanied by a loss of feeling in the affected area if there is sensory damage as well as motor. A study conducted by the Christopher & Dana Reeve Foundation, suggests that about 1 in 50 people have been diagnosed...
and death by asphyxiation because the victims can no longer breath on their own. When the venom from the red-headed krait takes effect, the most highly innervated muscles are the first to suffer: the muscle that elevates the upper eyelid and the ocular
Eye
Eyes are organs that detect light and convert it into electro-chemical impulses in neurons. The simplest photoreceptors in conscious vision connect light to movement...
and ciliary muscles controlling the lens. Between 20 minutes and several hours after being bitten, the victim may have a real struggle to keep his or her eyelids open, with other common manifestations being vomiting, blurred vision, headache and hypersalivation
Hypersalivation
Hypersalivation is excessive production of saliva. It has also been defined as increased amount of saliva in the mouth, which may also be caused by decreased clearance of saliva....
. Then the symptoms of paralysis
Paralysis
Paralysis is loss of muscle function for one or more muscles. Paralysis can be accompanied by a loss of feeling in the affected area if there is sensory damage as well as motor. A study conducted by the Christopher & Dana Reeve Foundation, suggests that about 1 in 50 people have been diagnosed...
may worsen, with progressive involvement of various muscles, including those of the jaws, in some cases, become locked. Respiratory distress
Labored breathing
Labored respiration or labored breathing is an abnormal respiration characterized by evidence of increased effort to breathe, including the use of accessory muscles of respiration, stridor, grunting, or nasal flaring.-Classification:...
may occur as a result of paralysis of the diaphragm
Thoracic diaphragm
In the anatomy of mammals, the thoracic diaphragm, or simply the diaphragm , is a sheet of internal skeletal muscle that extends across the bottom of the rib cage. The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity and performs an important function in respiration...
, the main muscle controlling breathing. Its venom also contains a novel postsynaptic neurotoxin, termed κ-flavitoxin, which is a potent inhibitor of nicotinic transmission in autonomic
Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that acts as a control system functioning largely below the level of consciousness, and controls visceral functions. The ANS affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, diameter of the pupils,...
ganglia. Neurotoxic symptoms may resolve naturally, or more rapidly through administration of antivenin
Antivenin
Antivenom is a biological product used in the treatment of venomous bites or stings. Antivenom is created by milking venom from the desired snake, spider or insect. The venom is then diluted and injected into a horse, sheep or goat...
or drugs that inactivate acetylcholinesterase
Acetylcholinesterase
"Acetylcholinesterase, also known as AChE or acetylcholine acetylhydrolase, is an enzyme that degrades the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, producing choline and an acetate group. It is mainly found at neuromuscular junctions and cholinergic nervous system, where its activity serves to terminate...
, an enzyme
Enzyme
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process, called substrates, are converted into different molecules, called products. Almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates...
which naturally destroys the chemical messenger carrying siganls from nerves to muscles at the neuromuscular synapse
Synapse
In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell...
.