Rastislav
Encyclopedia
Rastislav or Rostislav was the second known ruler of Moravia
(846–869 or 870). Although he started his reign as vassal
to Louis the German
, king of East Francia, he consolidated his rule to the extent that after 855 he was able to repel a series of Frankish
attacks. Upon his initiative two brothers, Constantine and Methodius
sent by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III
in 863, translated the most important Christian
liturgical book
s into Slavonic
in his realm. Rastislav was dethroned by his nephew Svatopluk I
who handed him over to the Franks.
, the first known ruler of Moravia. His career before 846 is unknown,The Slovakian historian, Stanislav J. Kirschbaum refers to Rastislav as prince of Nitra
in the period before 846 (Kirschbaum 2005, p. 26.; Kirschbaum 2007, pp. xxiv., 207., 238.). but it is conceivable that he served as a hostage for his uncle at Louis the German's court. The latter invaded Moravia in 846, deprived Mojmir I of his throne, and installed Rastislav as the new duke of Moravia. Rastislav seems to have already been Christian when he became duke, but there is no doubt that he was baptized at the latest in 846 as part of the conditions for his support by the East Frankish king.
. According to the Annals of St-Bertin
, in 853 Charles the Bald
, king of West Francia, bribed the Bulgarians
to ally with the Slavs
(apparently the Moravians) and together attack Louis the German's kingdom. In the course of the Bulgarian–Moravian attack, Louis the German deposed his prefect of the Eastland
, Ratpot who soon formed a rebel alliance with Rastislav. This alliance suggests that by that time Rastislav felt secure enough to challenge Frankish overlordship.
In 855 the East Frankish king gathered a large army to invade Moravia. His army, however, foundered before the walls of one of Rastislav's strongholds, perhaps at Mikulčice
(now in the Czech Republic
) that seems to have been rebuilt in the previous years. Unprepared for a prolonged siege, the king was forced to withdraw from the region. As the king was retreating, his army defeated a large Moravian force that attacked his camp. Nevertheless, Rastislav's army followed the Franks and pillaged many of their estates on the river Danube
.
In 856 Louis the German turned over the command of the southeastern marches of his kingdom to his son, Carloman
with the responsibility to hold the Moravians in check. According to the Annals of Fulda, Carloman led a new expedition against Rastislav in 858, but this campaign was a failure too, for Rastislav remained defiant. Carloman even struck an alliance with Rastislav against his father.
Pribina
, the Slavic dux of Lower Pannonia
died fighting the Moravians in 861 which suggests that Carloman also had conceded this province to Rastislav. In response to the ongoing rebellion of his son and Rastislav, Louis the German negotiated a counteralliance with Boris I of Bulgaria
. The king made it seem that he was leading a new campaign against Rastislav, but at the last moment he moved against Carloman who thus had no choice but to surrender.
. Having met with no success, he then asked for "teachers" in Constantinople
, in order to educate local Moravians as priests. His embassy also emphasized the need for "teachers" capable of working in Slavic language
.
Rastislav's request was granted when Constantine and Methodius, two brothers who had learned the Slavic dialect spoken in Thessaloniki
(Greece
), arrived with a few disciples in Moravia in 863. The two brothers undertook the task assigned to them by using the Slavonic language for teaching and for divine mass, and Constantine even created a script for the Slavs
. The Frankish clergy soon came to realize that the activities of the two Byzantine brothers represented a threat to their influence. As the Byzantine missionaries enjoyed Rastislav's protection, Louis the German dispatched Bishop Solomon of Constance
to Rome where he described how the diocese of Passau had been "fragmented and brought to ruin" by the defection of the Moravians.
Louis the German was also planning to launch a major campaign against Rastislav with the support of Boris I of Bulgaria. Although at the last minute the latter pulled out of the campaign, Louis new expedition against Rostislav was a success. In August 864 Louis the German invaded Moravia, crossing the Danube to besiege the civitas Dowina (identified, although not unanimously, with Devín Castle
in Slovakia
). The king apparently took Rastislav by surprise, and trapped him within the fortress. Unable to escape the Frankish siege, Rastislav surrendered, turned over a numerous high-ranking hostages and swore a new oath of fidelity.
The king's campaign, however, did not result in the subjugation of Rastislav. In 865, according to the Annals of St-Bertin, Louis the German sent his hosts against the "Wends" (Slavs), and the Annals of Fulda reports for the same year that Werner, a count in Upper Pannonia
, was summoned before the king, accused of conspiring with Rastislav. In late 866 Constantine and Methodius departed from Moravia for Venice
where the pope's envoys persuaded them to come to Rome
. Here Pope Hadrian II approved their Slavic translations of the Scriptures, consecrated their Slavic disciples as priests, and even allowed them to sing the Slavic liturgy in Rome's churches.
Early in 868 Louis the German's son, Carloman fought two successful engagements against Rastislav and returned with plunder. In August the king himself was planning to invade Moravia again, but he suddenly fell ill. Now the king's youngest son, Charles the Fat
came upon Rastislav's stronghold and burned all of his fortifications, seized treasures, and defeated all who came against him in battle. By that time, according to the Annals of Fulda, Rastislav, who had earlier granted his "old city" to his nephew Svatopluk
, ruled from his "indescribable fortress" that might be identified with Mikulčice (Czech Republic
). In 869 Pope Hadrian II who had decided to revive the archdiocese of Illyricum consecrated Methodius archbishop of Sirmium
(Sremska Mitrovica
, Serbia
) and papal legate
of all the Slavs living in the territories ruled by Rastislav, Svatopluk and Pribina's son, Koceľ
.
Svatopluk, in the meantime, entered into negotiations with Carloman without Rastislav's knowledge, and accepted Carloman's lordship over his person and his realm. Rastislav was "beside himself with rage" when he learned of his nephew's betrayal, and plotted for assassins to strangle Svatopluk at a banquet. The latter, however, was warned of the conspiracy and evaded death by pretending to go hawking
. When Rastislav set out with his soldiers to hunt down his nephew, Svatopluk captured his uncle and sent him in bonds to Carloman.
Rastislav was dispatched under guard to Regensburg
(Germany
) while Carloman invaded Rastislav's realm and subdued all of his fortresses. At Regensburg Louis the German had Rastislav presented to him bound with a heavy chain. While the assembled Franks, Bavarians, and Slavs condemned Rastislav to death for treason, the king commuted his punishment to blinding and imprisonment. Rastislav died in prison.
Great Moravia
Great Moravia was a Slavic state that existed in Central Europe and lasted for nearly seventy years in the 9th century whose creators were the ancestors of the Czechs and Slovaks. It was a vassal state of the Germanic Frankish kingdom and paid an annual tribute to it. There is some controversy as...
(846–869 or 870). Although he started his reign as vassal
Vassal
A vassal or feudatory is a person who has entered into a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. The obligations often included military support and mutual protection, in exchange for certain privileges, usually including the grant of land held...
to Louis the German
Louis the German
Louis the German , also known as Louis II or Louis the Bavarian, was a grandson of Charlemagne and the third son of the succeeding Frankish Emperor Louis the Pious and his first wife, Ermengarde of Hesbaye.He received the appellation 'Germanicus' shortly after his death in recognition of the fact...
, king of East Francia, he consolidated his rule to the extent that after 855 he was able to repel a series of Frankish
Franks
The Franks were a confederation of Germanic tribes first attested in the third century AD as living north and east of the Lower Rhine River. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul. Only the Salian Franks formed a...
attacks. Upon his initiative two brothers, Constantine and Methodius
Saints Cyril and Methodius
Saints Cyril and Methodius were two Byzantine Greek brothers born in Thessaloniki in the 9th century. They became missionaries of Christianity among the Slavic peoples of Bulgaria, Great Moravia and Pannonia. Through their work they influenced the cultural development of all Slavs, for which they...
sent by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III
Michael III
Michael III , , Byzantine Emperor from 842 to 867. Michael III was the third and traditionally last member of the Amorian-Phrygian Dynasty...
in 863, translated the most important Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
liturgical book
Liturgical book
A liturgical book is a book published by the authority of a church, that contains the text and directions for the liturgy of its official religious services.-Roman Catholic:...
s into Slavonic
Old Church Slavonic
Old Church Slavonic or Old Church Slavic was the first literary Slavic language, first developed by the 9th century Byzantine Greek missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius who were credited with standardizing the language and using it for translating the Bible and other Ancient Greek...
in his realm. Rastislav was dethroned by his nephew Svatopluk I
Svatopluk I
Svatopluk I or Zwentibald I was the greatest ruler of Moravia that attained its maximum territorial expansion in his reign . His career had already started in the 860s, when he governed a principality, the location of which is still a matter of debate among historians, within Moravia under the...
who handed him over to the Franks.
Early Life
According to the Annals of Fulda, Rastislav was a nephew of Mojmir IMojmír I
Mojmir I or Moimir I was the first known ruler of the Moravian Slavs . In modern scholarship, the creation of the early medieval state known as "Great" Moravia is attributed either to his or to his successors' expansionist policy...
, the first known ruler of Moravia. His career before 846 is unknown,The Slovakian historian, Stanislav J. Kirschbaum refers to Rastislav as prince of Nitra
Principality of Nitra
The Principality of Nitra also Nitrian Principality or Slovak Principality is the name for a polity of Nitra Sloviens, centered on large agglomeration, a multi-tribal centre around Nitra, Slovakia. The initially independent Principality of Nitra came into existence in the early 9th century...
in the period before 846 (Kirschbaum 2005, p. 26.; Kirschbaum 2007, pp. xxiv., 207., 238.). but it is conceivable that he served as a hostage for his uncle at Louis the German's court. The latter invaded Moravia in 846, deprived Mojmir I of his throne, and installed Rastislav as the new duke of Moravia. Rastislav seems to have already been Christian when he became duke, but there is no doubt that he was baptized at the latest in 846 as part of the conditions for his support by the East Frankish king.
Towards independence
In the first eight years of Rastislav's reign there is no report of Moravian rebellion which suggests that he remained loyal to Louis the German. In this period Rastislav seems to have acquired new territories in the east and established a border with the First Bulgarian EmpireFirst Bulgarian Empire
The First Bulgarian Empire was a medieval Bulgarian state founded in the north-eastern Balkans in c. 680 by the Bulgars, uniting with seven South Slavic tribes...
. According to the Annals of St-Bertin
Annales Bertiniani
Annales Bertiniani, or The Annals of St. Bertin, are late Carolingian, Frankish annals that were found in the monastery of St. Bertin, after which they are named. Their account is taken to cover the period 830-82, thus continuing the Royal Frankish Annals , from which, however, it has circulated...
, in 853 Charles the Bald
Charles the Bald
Charles the Bald , Holy Roman Emperor and King of West Francia , was the youngest son of the Emperor Louis the Pious by his second wife Judith.-Struggle against his brothers:He was born on 13 June 823 in Frankfurt, when his elder...
, king of West Francia, bribed the Bulgarians
Bulgarians
The Bulgarians are a South Slavic nation and ethnic group native to Bulgaria and neighbouring regions. Emigration has resulted in immigrant communities in a number of other countries.-History and ethnogenesis:...
to ally with the Slavs
Slavic peoples
The Slavic people are an Indo-European panethnicity living in Eastern Europe, Southeast Europe, North Asia and Central Asia. The term Slavic represents a broad ethno-linguistic group of people, who speak languages belonging to the Slavic language family and share, to varying degrees, certain...
(apparently the Moravians) and together attack Louis the German's kingdom. In the course of the Bulgarian–Moravian attack, Louis the German deposed his prefect of the Eastland
March of Pannonia
The March of Pannonia was a frontier march of the Carolingian Empire erected in the mid-ninth century against the threat of Great Moravia and lasting only as long as the strength of that state....
, Ratpot who soon formed a rebel alliance with Rastislav. This alliance suggests that by that time Rastislav felt secure enough to challenge Frankish overlordship.
In 855 the East Frankish king gathered a large army to invade Moravia. His army, however, foundered before the walls of one of Rastislav's strongholds, perhaps at Mikulčice
Mikulcice
Mikulčice is a municipality in the Czech Republic, situated 7 km south of Hodonín, near the border with Slovakia. It belongs to the Hodonín District and the South Moravian Region. It extends out for 1,530 ha, with 1,955 inhabitants in 623 homes. Mikulčice has a biospheric reserve, containing...
(now in the Czech Republic
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Poland to the northeast, Slovakia to the east, Austria to the south, and Germany to the west and northwest....
) that seems to have been rebuilt in the previous years. Unprepared for a prolonged siege, the king was forced to withdraw from the region. As the king was retreating, his army defeated a large Moravian force that attacked his camp. Nevertheless, Rastislav's army followed the Franks and pillaged many of their estates on the river Danube
Danube
The Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....
.
In 856 Louis the German turned over the command of the southeastern marches of his kingdom to his son, Carloman
Carloman of Bavaria
Carloman was the eldest son of Louis the German, king of East Francia , and Hemma, daughter of the count Welf...
with the responsibility to hold the Moravians in check. According to the Annals of Fulda, Carloman led a new expedition against Rastislav in 858, but this campaign was a failure too, for Rastislav remained defiant. Carloman even struck an alliance with Rastislav against his father.
Pribina
Pribina
Pribina was a Slavic prince whose adventurous career, recorded in the Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians , illustrates the political volatility of the Franco–Slavic frontiers of his time...
, the Slavic dux of Lower Pannonia
Lower Pannonia
The Lower Pannonia or Pannonia Inferior was an ancient Roman province. It was formed in the year 103 AD. The Lower Pannonia included parts of present-day Hungary, Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina.-Cities:...
died fighting the Moravians in 861 which suggests that Carloman also had conceded this province to Rastislav. In response to the ongoing rebellion of his son and Rastislav, Louis the German negotiated a counteralliance with Boris I of Bulgaria
Boris I of Bulgaria
Boris I, also known as Boris-Mihail and Bogoris was the Knyaz of First Bulgarian Empire in 852–889. At the time of his baptism in 864, Boris was named Michael after his godfather, Emperor Michael III...
. The king made it seem that he was leading a new campaign against Rastislav, but at the last moment he moved against Carloman who thus had no choice but to surrender.
Mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius
In order to increase his maneuverability, Rastislav attempted to curtail the activities of the Frankish missionaries in his realm. For this purpose, in around 862 he turned first to RomeHoly See
The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the Pope. It is the preeminent episcopal see of the Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and...
. Having met with no success, he then asked for "teachers" in Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
, in order to educate local Moravians as priests. His embassy also emphasized the need for "teachers" capable of working in Slavic language
Slavic languages
The Slavic languages , a group of closely related languages of the Slavic peoples and a subgroup of Indo-European languages, have speakers in most of Eastern Europe, in much of the Balkans, in parts of Central Europe, and in the northern part of Asia.-Branches:Scholars traditionally divide Slavic...
.
Rastislav's request was granted when Constantine and Methodius, two brothers who had learned the Slavic dialect spoken in Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki , historically also known as Thessalonica, Salonika or Salonica, is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of the region of Central Macedonia as well as the capital of the Decentralized Administration of Macedonia and Thrace...
(Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
), arrived with a few disciples in Moravia in 863. The two brothers undertook the task assigned to them by using the Slavonic language for teaching and for divine mass, and Constantine even created a script for the Slavs
Glagolitic alphabet
The Glagolitic alphabet , also known as Glagolitsa, is the oldest known Slavic alphabet. The name was not coined until many centuries after its creation, and comes from the Old Slavic glagolъ "utterance" . The verb glagoliti means "to speak"...
. The Frankish clergy soon came to realize that the activities of the two Byzantine brothers represented a threat to their influence. As the Byzantine missionaries enjoyed Rastislav's protection, Louis the German dispatched Bishop Solomon of Constance
Solomon I, Bishop of Constance
Solomon I was the Bishop of Constance from an unknown date between 835 and 847 until his death. He was the first of an "episcopal dynasty" which ruled Constance until 919 and briefly held the Diocese of Freising from 884 until 906 and that of Chur from 913 until 949.In 847, his diocese was the...
to Rome where he described how the diocese of Passau had been "fragmented and brought to ruin" by the defection of the Moravians.
Louis the German was also planning to launch a major campaign against Rastislav with the support of Boris I of Bulgaria. Although at the last minute the latter pulled out of the campaign, Louis new expedition against Rostislav was a success. In August 864 Louis the German invaded Moravia, crossing the Danube to besiege the civitas Dowina (identified, although not unanimously, with Devín Castle
Devín Castle
Devín Castle is a castle in Devín, which is a borough of Bratislava, the capital of Slovakia....
in Slovakia
Slovakia
The Slovak Republic is a landlocked state in Central Europe. It has a population of over five million and an area of about . Slovakia is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east and Hungary to the south...
). The king apparently took Rastislav by surprise, and trapped him within the fortress. Unable to escape the Frankish siege, Rastislav surrendered, turned over a numerous high-ranking hostages and swore a new oath of fidelity.
The king's campaign, however, did not result in the subjugation of Rastislav. In 865, according to the Annals of St-Bertin, Louis the German sent his hosts against the "Wends" (Slavs), and the Annals of Fulda reports for the same year that Werner, a count in Upper Pannonia
Upper Pannonia
The Upper Pannonia or Pannonia Superior was ancient Roman province with the capital Carnuntum. It was formed in the year 103 AD. Upper Pannonia included parts of present-day Hungary, Austria, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Slovakia....
, was summoned before the king, accused of conspiring with Rastislav. In late 866 Constantine and Methodius departed from Moravia for Venice
Venice
Venice is a city in northern Italy which is renowned for the beauty of its setting, its architecture and its artworks. It is the capital of the Veneto region...
where the pope's envoys persuaded them to come to Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
. Here Pope Hadrian II approved their Slavic translations of the Scriptures, consecrated their Slavic disciples as priests, and even allowed them to sing the Slavic liturgy in Rome's churches.
Last years
Charles the Fat
Charles the Fat was the King of Alemannia from 876, King of Italy from 879, western Emperor from 881, King of East Francia from 882, and King of West Francia from 884. In 887, he was deposed in East Francia, Lotharingia, and possibly Italy, where the records are not clear...
came upon Rastislav's stronghold and burned all of his fortifications, seized treasures, and defeated all who came against him in battle. By that time, according to the Annals of Fulda, Rastislav, who had earlier granted his "old city" to his nephew Svatopluk
Svatopluk I
Svatopluk I or Zwentibald I was the greatest ruler of Moravia that attained its maximum territorial expansion in his reign . His career had already started in the 860s, when he governed a principality, the location of which is still a matter of debate among historians, within Moravia under the...
, ruled from his "indescribable fortress" that might be identified with Mikulčice (Czech Republic
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Poland to the northeast, Slovakia to the east, Austria to the south, and Germany to the west and northwest....
). In 869 Pope Hadrian II who had decided to revive the archdiocese of Illyricum consecrated Methodius archbishop of Sirmium
Sirmium
Sirmium was a city in ancient Roman Pannonia. Firstly mentioned in the 4th century BC and originally inhabited by the Illyrians and Celts, it was conquered by the Romans in the 1st century BC and subsequently became the capital of the Roman province of Lower Pannonia. In 294 AD, Sirmium was...
(Sremska Mitrovica
Sremska Mitrovica
Sremska Mitrovica is a city and municipality located in the Vojvodina province of Serbia, on the left bank of the Sava river. As of 2002 the town had a total population of 39,041, while Sremska Mitrovica municipality had a population of 85,605...
, Serbia
Serbia
Serbia , officially the Republic of Serbia , is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans...
) and papal legate
Papal legate
A papal legate – from the Latin, authentic Roman title Legatus – is a personal representative of the pope to foreign nations, or to some part of the Catholic Church. He is empowered on matters of Catholic Faith and for the settlement of ecclesiastical matters....
of all the Slavs living in the territories ruled by Rastislav, Svatopluk and Pribina's son, Koceľ
Kocel
Koceľ was the second Lord of Principality of Lower Pannonia centered in Blatnograd / Blatnohrad .-Early life:...
.
Svatopluk, in the meantime, entered into negotiations with Carloman without Rastislav's knowledge, and accepted Carloman's lordship over his person and his realm. Rastislav was "beside himself with rage" when he learned of his nephew's betrayal, and plotted for assassins to strangle Svatopluk at a banquet. The latter, however, was warned of the conspiracy and evaded death by pretending to go hawking
Falconry
Falconry is "the taking of wild quarry in its natural state and habitat by means of a trained raptor". There are two traditional terms used to describe a person involved in falconry: a falconer flies a falcon; an austringer flies a hawk or an eagle...
. When Rastislav set out with his soldiers to hunt down his nephew, Svatopluk captured his uncle and sent him in bonds to Carloman.
Rastislav was dispatched under guard to Regensburg
Regensburg
Regensburg is a city in Bavaria, Germany, located at the confluence of the Danube and Regen rivers, at the northernmost bend in the Danube. To the east lies the Bavarian Forest. Regensburg is the capital of the Bavarian administrative region Upper Palatinate...
(Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
) while Carloman invaded Rastislav's realm and subdued all of his fortresses. At Regensburg Louis the German had Rastislav presented to him bound with a heavy chain. While the assembled Franks, Bavarians, and Slavs condemned Rastislav to death for treason, the king commuted his punishment to blinding and imprisonment. Rastislav died in prison.
See also
- Great MoraviaGreat MoraviaGreat Moravia was a Slavic state that existed in Central Europe and lasted for nearly seventy years in the 9th century whose creators were the ancestors of the Czechs and Slovaks. It was a vassal state of the Germanic Frankish kingdom and paid an annual tribute to it. There is some controversy as...
- Louis the GermanLouis the GermanLouis the German , also known as Louis II or Louis the Bavarian, was a grandson of Charlemagne and the third son of the succeeding Frankish Emperor Louis the Pious and his first wife, Ermengarde of Hesbaye.He received the appellation 'Germanicus' shortly after his death in recognition of the fact...
- Mojmir IMojmír IMojmir I or Moimir I was the first known ruler of the Moravian Slavs . In modern scholarship, the creation of the early medieval state known as "Great" Moravia is attributed either to his or to his successors' expansionist policy...
- Saints Cyril and MethodiusSaints Cyril and MethodiusSaints Cyril and Methodius were two Byzantine Greek brothers born in Thessaloniki in the 9th century. They became missionaries of Christianity among the Slavic peoples of Bulgaria, Great Moravia and Pannonia. Through their work they influenced the cultural development of all Slavs, for which they...
- Svatopluk ISvatopluk ISvatopluk I or Zwentibald I was the greatest ruler of Moravia that attained its maximum territorial expansion in his reign . His career had already started in the 860s, when he governed a principality, the location of which is still a matter of debate among historians, within Moravia under the...
Sources
- Barford, P. M. (2001). The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern Europe. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3977-9.
- Bowlus, Charles R. (1994). Franks, Moravians and Magyars: The Struggle for the Middle Danube, 788–907. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3276-3.
- Goldberg, Eric J. (2006). Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict under Louis the German, 817–876. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-7529-0.
- Kantor, Marvin (1983). Medieval Slavic Lives of Saints and Princes. The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-930042-44-1.
- Kirschbaum, Stanislav J. (2005). A History of Slovakia: The Struggle for Survival. Palgrave. ISBN 1-4039-6929-9.
- Kirschbaum, Stanislav J. (2007). Historical Dictionary of Slovakia. Scarecrow Press, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8108-5535-9.
- Nelson, Janet L. (1991). The Annals of St-Bertin. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-3426-8.
- Reuter, Timothy (1992). The Annals of Fulda. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-3458-2.
- Sommer, Petr; Třeštík, Dušan; Žemlička, Josef; Opačić, Zoë (2007). Bohemia and Moravia. In: Berend, Nora (2007); Christianization and the Rise of Christian Monarchy: Scandinavia, Central Europe and Rus’, c. 900–1200; Cambridge University Press; ISBN 978-0-521-87616-2.
- Spiesz, Anton; Caplovic, Dusan; Bolchazy, Ladislaus J. (2006). Illustrated Slovak History: A Struggle for Sovereignty in Central Europe. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-0-86516-426-0.
- Vlasto, A. P. (1970). The Entry of the Slavs into Christendom: An Introduction to the Medieval History of the Slavs. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07459-2.