Psilocybe hispanica
Encyclopedia
Psilocybe hispanica is a species of fungus
in the Strophariaceae
family. It produces small brown mushroom
s with conical to convex caps
up to 10 mm (0.393700787401575 in) in diameter and stems
16 to 25 mm (0.62992125984252 to 0.984251968503937 in) long by 0.5 to 1 mm (0.0196850393700787 to 0.0393700787401575 in) thick. Reported as new to science in 2000, it is only known from the Pyrenees
mountain range in northern Spain and southwestern France, where it grows on horse dung in grass fields at elevations of 1700 metre. The mushroom contains the psychoactive compound psilocybin
. The possible depiction of this species in the 6,000-year-old Selva Pascuala rock art
suggests that it might have been used in ancient religious rituals—the oldest evidence of such usage in prehistoric Europe.
in a 2000 publication, based on specimens collected by Ignacio Seral Bozal near Huesca
in northern Spain in 1995. Psilocybe hispanica is classified in the section Semilanceata of the genus Psilocybe
because of its thick-walled spore
s and fruit body
that bruises blue with handling. The specific epithet hispanica is Latin for "Spanish".
ranges in shape from somewhat conical to convex, and reaches diameters of 5 to 10 mm (0.196850393700787 to 0.393700787401575 ). Its surface is smooth, somewhat sticky to dry, and brown to brownish-yellow. The gills are somewhat adnate
, and brown-violaceous with whitish edges. The stem
is 16 to 25 mm (0.62992125984252 to 0.984251968503937 in) long by 0.5 to 1 mm (0.0196850393700787 to 0.0393700787401575 in) thick, cylindrical, and slightly bulbous at the base. It is whitish-yellow, with vinaceous or blue-green to blackish tones towards the base. Mature specimens do not have a veil
on the stem. The flesh
is whitish, but like most psilocybin-containing species, stains blue when injured.
The spore
s are ellipsoid and measure 12–14.5 by 6.5–8 μm
. They have a brownish-yellow wall greater than 1 μm thick and a broad apical germ pore
with an acute hilar appendix
at the base (a region where the spore was once attached to the sterigma
). The basidia (spore-bearing cells in the hymenium
) are four-spored, hyaline
(translucent), and measure 32–44 by 8–12 μm. The cap cuticle
is made of a layer 130–150 μm thick, with hyaline, thin-walled gelatinized hypha
e measuring 1.5–4 μm broad. The hypodermium (the tissue layer directly under the pileipellis) is made of thin-walled, hyaline hyphae, 2.5–8 μm broad, with a brownish incrusting pigment
. Clamp connection
s are present in the hyphae.
is roughly similar in appearance to P. hispanica, but may distinguished by its mycenoid (Mycena
-like) appearance and acute umbonate
cap. Although the grassland habitat of the two species is similar, P. semilanceata does not grow directly on dung; rather, it is a saprobic species that grows on decaying grass roots. P. fimetaria
also resembles P. hispanica, but it also has a mycenoid appearance and has a ring on the stem. In terms of microscopic characteristics, P. fimetaria has larger cheilocystidia that measure 20–32 by 4–8 μm. P. hispanica differs from P. liniformans var. liniformans in that it lacks a gelatinous gill edge. P. liniformans var. americana
has larger cheilocystidia, measuring 22–33 by 5.5–9 μm, and it is known to grow only on soil around herbs, in the Northwest and Northeast USA and Chile. Deconica coprophila (formerly known as Psilocybe coprophila) is a small brownish mushroom that also grows on dung, but it does not contain psilocybin and does not have a bluing stem.
, at an elevation of 2300 metres (7,545.9 ft). In 2003, the species was reported from Tramacastillo de Tena, a small village in the Pyrenees; it was also reported to have "penetrated the French part of the Pyrenees". Within its restricted range, the mushroom is "very common" at altitudes of 1700 metre.
effects; other mushrooms used recreationally in Spain include P. semilanceata and P. gallaeciae
. Guzmán and Castro report that a 17th-century medallion found in Tena Valley
in the southern Pyrenees had images of a devil and mushrooms carved on it. The mushrooms—possibly either P. semilanceata or P. hispanica, according to Guzmán and Castro—were used in witchcraft
, a common practice in the valley during the Middle Ages
.
It has been argued that prehistoric rock art at a site known as Selva Pascuala near the Spanish town of Villar del Humo
offers evidence that P. hispanica was used in religious rituals 6,000 years ago. The rock shelter
at Selva Pascuala was discovered in the early twentieth century; in the early twenty-first century it was noticed that objects in one of the murals, which previously had been described as "mushrooms", matched the general morphology
of P. hispanica: the mural depicts a row of 13 mushroom-like objects with convex to conical caps, and ringless stems that vary from straight to sinuous (wavy). Additionally, the mural shows a bull, which suggests an association with the coprophilic P. hispanica. Although the hallucinogenic species P. semilanceata is also widespread in the area where the mural was found, its differing shape (narrowly conical and acutely papillate) and its habitat on soil instead of dung suggests it is not the species represented in the mural. If the interpretation is correct, the mural represents the oldest evidence of psychedelic fungi use in Europe, and the third reported instance of rock art suggesting prehistoric usage of neurotropic fungi. The only older example is from Tassili n'Ajjer
, in the Sahara desert in southeast Algeria
. In 1992, the Italian ethnobotanist Giorgio Samorini
reported finding a painted mural dated 7000 to 9000 BCE portraying mushrooms, later tentatively identified as Psilocybe mairei
, a species known from Algeria and Morocco
.
Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
in the Strophariaceae
Strophariaceae
The Strophariaceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. The family contains 18 genera and 1316 species. The species of Strophariaceae have a red-brown to dark brown spore print, while the spores themselves are smooth and have an apical germ pore. These agarics are also characterized by...
family. It produces small brown mushroom
Mushroom
A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi that...
s with conical to convex caps
Pileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
up to 10 mm (0.393700787401575 in) in diameter and stems
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
16 to 25 mm (0.62992125984252 to 0.984251968503937 in) long by 0.5 to 1 mm (0.0196850393700787 to 0.0393700787401575 in) thick. Reported as new to science in 2000, it is only known from the Pyrenees
Pyrenees
The Pyrenees is a range of mountains in southwest Europe that forms a natural border between France and Spain...
mountain range in northern Spain and southwestern France, where it grows on horse dung in grass fields at elevations of 1700 metre. The mushroom contains the psychoactive compound psilocybin
Psilocybin
Psilocybin is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug, with mind-altering effects similar to those of LSD and mescaline, after it is converted to psilocin. The effects can include altered thinking processes, perceptual distortions, an altered sense of time, and spiritual experiences, as well as...
. The possible depiction of this species in the 6,000-year-old Selva Pascuala rock art
Rock art
Rock art is a term used in archaeology for any human-made markings made on natural stone. They can be divided into:*Petroglyphs - carvings into stone surfaces*Pictographs - rock and cave paintings...
suggests that it might have been used in ancient religious rituals—the oldest evidence of such usage in prehistoric Europe.
Taxonomy
The species was described by Mexican mycologist Gastón GuzmánGastón Guzmán
Gastón Guzmán is a Mexican mycologist and anthropologist. He is considered the world's foremost authority on the genus Psilocybe.He was born in Xalapa, Veracruz, in 1932....
in a 2000 publication, based on specimens collected by Ignacio Seral Bozal near Huesca
Huesca
Huesca is a city in north-eastern Spain, within the autonomous community of Aragon. It is also the capital of the Spanish province of the same name and the comarca of Hoya de Huesca....
in northern Spain in 1995. Psilocybe hispanica is classified in the section Semilanceata of the genus Psilocybe
Psilocybe
Psilocybe is a genus of small mushrooms growing worldwide. This genus is best known for its species with psychedelic or hallucinogenic properties, widely known as "magic mushrooms", though the majority of species do not contain hallucinogenic compounds...
because of its thick-walled spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
s and fruit body
Basidiocarp
In fungi, a basidiocarp, basidiome or basidioma , is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete, the multicellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes; rusts and smuts do not produce such structures...
that bruises blue with handling. The specific epithet hispanica is Latin for "Spanish".
Description
The capPileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
ranges in shape from somewhat conical to convex, and reaches diameters of 5 to 10 mm (0.196850393700787 to 0.393700787401575 ). Its surface is smooth, somewhat sticky to dry, and brown to brownish-yellow. The gills are somewhat adnate
Adnation
Adnation in plants is the "union of unlike parts; organically united or fused with another dissimilar part, e.g. an ovary to a calyx tube, or stamens to petals". This is in contrast to connation, the fusion of similar organs....
, and brown-violaceous with whitish edges. The stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
is 16 to 25 mm (0.62992125984252 to 0.984251968503937 in) long by 0.5 to 1 mm (0.0196850393700787 to 0.0393700787401575 in) thick, cylindrical, and slightly bulbous at the base. It is whitish-yellow, with vinaceous or blue-green to blackish tones towards the base. Mature specimens do not have a veil
Annulus (mycology)
An annulus is the ring like structure sometimes found on the stipe of some species of mushrooms. The annulus represents the remaining part of the partial veil, after it has ruptured to expose the gills or other spore-producing surface. An annulus may be thick and membranous, or it may be cobweb-like...
on the stem. The flesh
Trama (mycology)
In mycology trama is a term for the inner, fleshy portion of a mushroom's basidiocarp, or fruit body. It is distinct from the outer layer of tissue, known as the pileipellis or cuticle, and from the spore-bearing tissue layer known as the hymenium....
is whitish, but like most psilocybin-containing species, stains blue when injured.
The spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
s are ellipsoid and measure 12–14.5 by 6.5–8 μm
Micrometre
A micrometer , is by definition 1×10-6 of a meter .In plain English, it means one-millionth of a meter . Its unit symbol in the International System of Units is μm...
. They have a brownish-yellow wall greater than 1 μm thick and a broad apical germ pore
Germ pore
A germ pore is a small pore in the outer wall of a fungal spore through which the germ tube exits upon germination. It can be apical or eccentric in its location, and, on light microscopy, may be visualized as a lighter coloured area on the cell wall....
with an acute hilar appendix
Hilum (biology)
In botany, the hilum is a scar or mark left on a seed coat by the former attachment to the ovary wall or to the funiculus...
at the base (a region where the spore was once attached to the sterigma
Sterigma
thumb|right|The sterigmata is the slender extension that connects the spore to the basidia .A sterigma is an extension of the basidium consisting of a basal filamentous part and a slender projection with a spore at the tip...
). The basidia (spore-bearing cells in the hymenium
Hymenium
The hymenium is the tissue layer on the hymenophore of a fungal fruiting body where the cells develop into basidia or asci, which produce spores. In some species all of the cells of the hymenium develop into basidia or asci, while in others some cells develop into sterile cells called cystidia or...
) are four-spored, hyaline
Hyaline
The term hyaline denotes a substance with a glass-like appearance.-Histopathology:In histopathological medical usage, a hyaline substance appears glassy and pink after being stained with haematoxylin and eosin — usually it is an acellular, proteinaceous material...
(translucent), and measure 32–44 by 8–12 μm. The cap cuticle
Pileipellis
thumb|300px||right|The cuticle of some mushrooms, such as [[Russula mustelina]] shown here, can be peeled from the cap, and may be useful as an identification feature....
is made of a layer 130–150 μm thick, with hyaline, thin-walled gelatinized hypha
Hypha
A hypha is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium; yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not grow as hyphae.-Structure:A hypha consists of one or...
e measuring 1.5–4 μm broad. The hypodermium (the tissue layer directly under the pileipellis) is made of thin-walled, hyaline hyphae, 2.5–8 μm broad, with a brownish incrusting pigment
Pigment
A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength-selective absorption. This physical process differs from fluorescence, phosphorescence, and other forms of luminescence, in which a material emits light.Many materials selectively absorb...
. Clamp connection
Clamp connection
A clamp connection is a structure formed by growing hyphal cells of certain fungi. It is created to ensure each septum, or segment of hypha separated by crossed walls, receives a set of differing nuclei, which are obtained through mating of hyphae of differing sexual types...
s are present in the hyphae.
Similar species
Psilocybe semilanceataPsilocybe semilanceata
Psilocybe semilanceata, commonly known as the liberty cap, is a psychedelic mushroom that contains the psychoactive compounds psilocybin and baeocystin. Of the world's psychoactive mushrooms, it is the most common in nature, and one of the most potent...
is roughly similar in appearance to P. hispanica, but may distinguished by its mycenoid (Mycena
Mycena
Mycena is a large genus of small saprotrophic mushrooms that are rarely more than a few centimeters in width. They are characterized by a white spore print, a small conical or bell-shaped cap, and a thin fragile stem. Most are gray or brown, but a few species have brighter colors. Most have a...
-like) appearance and acute umbonate
Umbo (mycology)
thumb|right|[[Cantharellula umbonata]] has an umbo.thumb|right|The cap of [[Psilocybe makarorae]] is acutely papillate.An umbo is a raised area in the center of a mushroom cap. Caps that possess this feature are called umbonate. Umbos that are sharply pointed are called acute, while those that are...
cap. Although the grassland habitat of the two species is similar, P. semilanceata does not grow directly on dung; rather, it is a saprobic species that grows on decaying grass roots. P. fimetaria
Psilocybe fimetaria
Psilocybe fimetaria, is a psilocybin mushroom, having psilocybin and psilocin as main active compounds.-Description:*Cap: 1.5 — 3.5 cm in diameter, convex to plano-convex, becoming subcampanulate to broadly convex in age, with or without a sharp papilla. Surface even to translucent-striate...
also resembles P. hispanica, but it also has a mycenoid appearance and has a ring on the stem. In terms of microscopic characteristics, P. fimetaria has larger cheilocystidia that measure 20–32 by 4–8 μm. P. hispanica differs from P. liniformans var. liniformans in that it lacks a gelatinous gill edge. P. liniformans var. americana
Psilocybe liniformans var. americana
Psilocybe liniformans var. americana, is a psilocybin mushroom of the Agaricales family, in the section Semilanceatae, having psilocybin as its main active compound.-Description:...
has larger cheilocystidia, measuring 22–33 by 5.5–9 μm, and it is known to grow only on soil around herbs, in the Northwest and Northeast USA and Chile. Deconica coprophila (formerly known as Psilocybe coprophila) is a small brownish mushroom that also grows on dung, but it does not contain psilocybin and does not have a bluing stem.
Habitat and distribution
Psilocybe hispanica is a coprophilous fungus (dung-loving), and produces fruit bodies that grow solitarily or in dense groups on horse dung; sometimes more than 25 fruit bodies can arise from the same dung. In Guzmán's original report, they were found in a Pyrenean meadow in AragonAragon
Aragon is a modern autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. Located in northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces : Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel. Its capital is Zaragoza...
, at an elevation of 2300 metres (7,545.9 ft). In 2003, the species was reported from Tramacastillo de Tena, a small village in the Pyrenees; it was also reported to have "penetrated the French part of the Pyrenees". Within its restricted range, the mushroom is "very common" at altitudes of 1700 metre.
Uses
The mushroom is consumed recreationally by Spanish youths for its mind-alteringPsilocybin mushroom
Psilocybin mushrooms are fungi that contain the psychoactive compounds psilocybin and psilocin. There are multiple colloquial terms for psilocybin mushrooms, the most common being shrooms or magic mushrooms....
effects; other mushrooms used recreationally in Spain include P. semilanceata and P. gallaeciae
Psilocybe gallaeciae
Psilocybe gallaeciae is a species of mushroom in the Strophariaceae family. It was found in Spain in 1997, and published as a new species in 2003....
. Guzmán and Castro report that a 17th-century medallion found in Tena Valley
Tena Valley
The Tena Valley is a valley located at the southern side of the Pyrenees, in the Alto Gállego comarca, province of Huesca, and is crossed by the Gállego river from north to south...
in the southern Pyrenees had images of a devil and mushrooms carved on it. The mushrooms—possibly either P. semilanceata or P. hispanica, according to Guzmán and Castro—were used in witchcraft
Witchcraft
Witchcraft, in historical, anthropological, religious, and mythological contexts, is the alleged use of supernatural or magical powers. A witch is a practitioner of witchcraft...
, a common practice in the valley during the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
.
It has been argued that prehistoric rock art at a site known as Selva Pascuala near the Spanish town of Villar del Humo
Villar del Humo
Villar del Humo is a municipality located in the province of Cuenca, Castile-La Mancha, Spain. According to the 2004 census , the municipality has a population of 372 inhabitants.It is an important location for prehistoric rock art...
offers evidence that P. hispanica was used in religious rituals 6,000 years ago. The rock shelter
Rock shelter
A rock shelter is a shallow cave-like opening at the base of a bluff or cliff....
at Selva Pascuala was discovered in the early twentieth century; in the early twenty-first century it was noticed that objects in one of the murals, which previously had been described as "mushrooms", matched the general morphology
Morphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
of P. hispanica: the mural depicts a row of 13 mushroom-like objects with convex to conical caps, and ringless stems that vary from straight to sinuous (wavy). Additionally, the mural shows a bull, which suggests an association with the coprophilic P. hispanica. Although the hallucinogenic species P. semilanceata is also widespread in the area where the mural was found, its differing shape (narrowly conical and acutely papillate) and its habitat on soil instead of dung suggests it is not the species represented in the mural. If the interpretation is correct, the mural represents the oldest evidence of psychedelic fungi use in Europe, and the third reported instance of rock art suggesting prehistoric usage of neurotropic fungi. The only older example is from Tassili n'Ajjer
Tassili n'Ajjer
Tassili n'Ajjer is a mountain range in the Algerian section of the Sahara Desert. It is a vast plateau in south-east Algeria at the borders of Libya, Niger and Mali, covering an area of 72,000 sq...
, in the Sahara desert in southeast Algeria
Algeria
Algeria , officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria , also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.In terms of land area, it is the largest country in Africa and the Arab...
. In 1992, the Italian ethnobotanist Giorgio Samorini
Giorgio Samorini
Giorgio Samorini is an ethnobotanist and psychedelics researcher. He has published many essays and monographs regarding the use of psychoactive compounds and sacred plants. He was a frequent contributor to, and sometime editor of Eleusis the Journal of Psychoactive Plants & Compounds.-Books:* ....
reported finding a painted mural dated 7000 to 9000 BCE portraying mushrooms, later tentatively identified as Psilocybe mairei
Psilocybe mairei
Psilocybe mairei is a species of mushroom in the Strophariaceae family. The mushroom contains the medicinal compound psilocybin....
, a species known from Algeria and Morocco
Morocco
Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
.