Pseudo-Geber
Encyclopedia
Pseudo-Geber is the name assigned by modern scholars to an anonymous European alchemist
born in the 13th century, sometimes identified with Paul of Taranto
, who wrote books on alchemy
and metallurgy
, in Latin, under the pen name of "Geber". "Geber" is the shortened and Latinised form of the name Jābir ibn Hayyān, a renowned 8th century Islamic alchemist
. In Europe for many centuries it was assumed that "Geber" was identical with Jabir ibn Hayyan and that the books had been translated from Arabic.
Arabic alchemy was held in high esteem by medieval European alchemists and so was the name Geber, meaning Jābir ibn Hayyan. Some Arabic writings attributed to Jābir had been translated into Latin during the 11th to 13th centuries. (Once again, however, some of the Arabic writings attributed to Jābir were actually written in Arabic at a later date than the lifetime of Jābir, who died 815.) The Latin writer Pseudo-Geber probably adopted the name of his illustrious predecessor in order to capitalize on his reputation. That is called pseudepigraphy, and it was not at all uncommon in the medieval era. For example, a wide variety of medieval writings were distributed with the illustrious Aristotle as the stated author; see Pseudo-Aristotle
.
Also:
Being the clearest expression of alchemical theory and laboratory directions available until then — in a field where mysticism, secrecy, and obscurity were the usual rule — Pseudo-Geber's books were widely read and influential among European alchemists. The Summa Perfectionis in particular was one of the most widely read alchemy books in western Europe in the late medieval period. The next three books on the list above are shorter, and are, to a substantial degree, condensations of the material in the Summa Perfectionis. The last two books listed, Testamentum Geberi and Alchemia Geberi, are "absolutely spurious, being of a later date [than the other four]", as Marcellin Berthelot
put it, and they are usually not included as part of the Pseudo-Geber corpus. Their author is not the same as the others, but it is not certain that the first four have the same author either.
As mentioned, the Pseudo-Geber corpus was assumed to be translated from Arabic. This assumption was reversed in the late 19th century by the studies of Kopp
, Hoefer
, Berthelot
, and Lippmann
. The corpus is clearly influenced by medieval Arabic writers (especially by Al-Razi
, and not particularly by the eponymous Jabir). The estimated date for the first four books is 1310, and they could not date from much before that because no reference to the Summa Perfectionis is found anywhere in the world before or during the 13th century. For example there is no mention in the 13th century writings of Albertus Magnus
and Roger Bacon
. No Arabic copies exist. Their contents reflect the state of knowledge in Europe at about 1300. As one chemistry historian writes: "An important point of evidence is the absence in the Arabic texts of the new and original facts recorded in the Latin particularly... nitric acid
, aqua regia
, oil of vitriol, silver nitrate
...." Aqua regia is a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. Its first documented occurrence in world history is in Pseudo-Geber. Knowledge of nitric acid itself does not appear in any writings before the 13th century, and arguably appears first in Pseudo-Geber. Silver nitrate probably appears in Albertus Magnus
in the 13th century, and is not found earlier.
The chemistry historian Eric John Holmyard
in his 1957 book Alchemy writes:
Another chemistry historian writes that the question of Geber's identity, whether he is the original Jābir or a "pseudo-Geber" adopting his name, is "still in dispute", but then proceeds himself to call Geber "a Latin author". The chemistry historians who think the question is still in dispute are few and far between. However, the identity of this Latin author remains a mystery. He may have lived in Italy or Spain, or both. Some books in the Geber corpus may have been written by authors that post-date the author of the Summa Perfectionis. As mentioned already, the contents of most of the other books in the corpus are mostly recapitulations of the Summa Perfectionis. The one entitled De Inventione Veritatis, though mostly a recapitulation of Summa Perfectionis, has the earliest known recipe for the preparation of nitric acid."
The 1991 book by William R. Newman, The Summa perfectionis of Pseudo-Geber: A critical edition, translation, and study, has 250 pages of critical introduction, followed by 400 pages of footnoted Latin text and 150 pages of footnoted English translation. The critical introduction argues that the author of the Summa perfectionis was Paul of Taranto
.
s are composed of unified sulfur
and mercury
corpuscles and gave detailed descriptions of metallic properties in those terms. He explained the use of an elixir
in transmuting base metals into gold
(see philosopher's stone
) and defended alchemy at length against the charge that transmuation of metals was impossible. His practical directions for laboratory procedures were so clear that it is obvious he was familiar with many chemical operations. His works contain the first recipes for producing mineral acids. His works on chemistry were not equaled until the 16th century writings of chemist Vannoccio Biringuccio
, mineralogist Georgius Agricola, and the German alchemist Lazarus Ercker.
Alchemy
Alchemy is an influential philosophical tradition whose early practitioners’ claims to profound powers were known from antiquity. The defining objectives of alchemy are varied; these include the creation of the fabled philosopher's stone possessing powers including the capability of turning base...
born in the 13th century, sometimes identified with Paul of Taranto
Paul of Taranto
Paul of Taranto was a 13th century Franciscan alchemist and author from southern Italy. Perhaps the most recognized of his works is his Theorica et practica, which defends alchemical principles by describing the theoretical and practical reasoning behind it...
, who wrote books on alchemy
Alchemy
Alchemy is an influential philosophical tradition whose early practitioners’ claims to profound powers were known from antiquity. The defining objectives of alchemy are varied; these include the creation of the fabled philosopher's stone possessing powers including the capability of turning base...
and metallurgy
Metallurgy
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. It is also the technology of metals: the way in which science is applied to their practical use...
, in Latin, under the pen name of "Geber". "Geber" is the shortened and Latinised form of the name Jābir ibn Hayyān, a renowned 8th century Islamic alchemist
Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam
Alchemy and chemistry in Islam refers to the study of both traditional alchemy and early practical chemistry by scholars in the medieval Islamic world. The word alchemy was derived from the Arabic word كيمياء or kīmīāʾ...
. In Europe for many centuries it was assumed that "Geber" was identical with Jabir ibn Hayyan and that the books had been translated from Arabic.
Arabic alchemy was held in high esteem by medieval European alchemists and so was the name Geber, meaning Jābir ibn Hayyan. Some Arabic writings attributed to Jābir had been translated into Latin during the 11th to 13th centuries. (Once again, however, some of the Arabic writings attributed to Jābir were actually written in Arabic at a later date than the lifetime of Jābir, who died 815.) The Latin writer Pseudo-Geber probably adopted the name of his illustrious predecessor in order to capitalize on his reputation. That is called pseudepigraphy, and it was not at all uncommon in the medieval era. For example, a wide variety of medieval writings were distributed with the illustrious Aristotle as the stated author; see Pseudo-Aristotle
Pseudo-Aristotle
Pseudo-Aristotle is a general cognomen for authors of philosophical or medical treatises who attributed their work to the Greek philosopher Aristotle, or whose work was later attributed to him by others....
.
The Pseudo-Geber Corpus and the Geber Problem
The following set of books is called the "Pseudo-Geber Corpus" (or the "Latin Geber Corpus"). The books were published by printing-press several times in the first half of the 16th century. They were in circulation in manuscript for roughly 200 years beforehand. The stated author is "Geber" or "Gebri Arabis" (Latin for "Geber the Arab"), and it is stated that the translator is "Rodogero Hispalensi" (Latin for "Roger the Hispanic").- Summa perfectionis magisterii ("The Height of the Perfection of Mastery").
- Liber fornacum ("Book of Furnaces"),
- De investigatione perfectionis ("On the Investigation of Perfection"), and
- De inventione veritatis ("On the Discovery of Truth").
Also:
- Testamentum Geberi
- Alchemia Geberi
Being the clearest expression of alchemical theory and laboratory directions available until then — in a field where mysticism, secrecy, and obscurity were the usual rule — Pseudo-Geber's books were widely read and influential among European alchemists. The Summa Perfectionis in particular was one of the most widely read alchemy books in western Europe in the late medieval period. The next three books on the list above are shorter, and are, to a substantial degree, condensations of the material in the Summa Perfectionis. The last two books listed, Testamentum Geberi and Alchemia Geberi, are "absolutely spurious, being of a later date [than the other four]", as Marcellin Berthelot
Marcellin Berthelot
Marcelin Pierre Eugène Berthelot was a French chemist and politician noted for the Thomsen-Berthelot principle of thermochemistry. He synthesized many organic compounds from inorganic substances and disproved the theory of vitalism. He is considered as one of the greatest chemists of all time.He...
put it, and they are usually not included as part of the Pseudo-Geber corpus. Their author is not the same as the others, but it is not certain that the first four have the same author either.
As mentioned, the Pseudo-Geber corpus was assumed to be translated from Arabic. This assumption was reversed in the late 19th century by the studies of Kopp
Hermann Franz Moritz Kopp
Hermann Franz Moritz Kopp , German chemist, was born at Hanau, where his father, Johann Heinrich Kopp , a physician, was professor of chemistry, physics and natural history at the local lyceum....
, Hoefer
Ferdinand Hoefer
Jean Chrétien Ferdinand Hoefer was a German-French physician and lexicographer. He is now known for his many works on the history of science.-Selected works:...
, Berthelot
Marcellin Berthelot
Marcelin Pierre Eugène Berthelot was a French chemist and politician noted for the Thomsen-Berthelot principle of thermochemistry. He synthesized many organic compounds from inorganic substances and disproved the theory of vitalism. He is considered as one of the greatest chemists of all time.He...
, and Lippmann
Edmund Oscar von Lippmann
Edmund Oscar von Lippmann [also Edmund Oskar von Lippmann] was a German chemist and natural science historian....
. The corpus is clearly influenced by medieval Arabic writers (especially by Al-Razi
Al-Razi
Muhammad ibn Zakariyā Rāzī , known as Rhazes or Rasis after medieval Latinists, was a Persian polymath,a prominent figure in Islamic Golden Age, physician, alchemist and chemist, philosopher, and scholar....
, and not particularly by the eponymous Jabir). The estimated date for the first four books is 1310, and they could not date from much before that because no reference to the Summa Perfectionis is found anywhere in the world before or during the 13th century. For example there is no mention in the 13th century writings of Albertus Magnus
Albertus Magnus
Albertus Magnus, O.P. , also known as Albert the Great and Albert of Cologne, is a Catholic saint. He was a German Dominican friar and a bishop, who achieved fame for his comprehensive knowledge of and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science and religion. Those such as James A. Weisheipl...
and Roger Bacon
Roger Bacon
Roger Bacon, O.F.M. , also known as Doctor Mirabilis , was an English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on the study of nature through empirical methods...
. No Arabic copies exist. Their contents reflect the state of knowledge in Europe at about 1300. As one chemistry historian writes: "An important point of evidence is the absence in the Arabic texts of the new and original facts recorded in the Latin particularly... nitric acid
Nitric acid
Nitric acid , also known as aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and toxic strong acid.Colorless when pure, older samples tend to acquire a yellow cast due to the accumulation of oxides of nitrogen. If the solution contains more than 86% nitric acid, it is referred to as fuming...
, aqua regia
Aqua regia
Aqua regia or aqua regis is a highly corrosive mixture of acids, fuming yellow or red solution, also called nitro-hydrochloric acid. The mixture is formed by freshly mixing concentrated nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, usually in a volume ratio of 1:3, respectively...
, oil of vitriol, silver nitrate
Silver nitrate
Silver nitrate is an inorganic compound with chemical formula . This compound is a versatile precursor to many other silver compounds, such as those used in photography. It is far less sensitive to light than the halides...
...." Aqua regia is a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. Its first documented occurrence in world history is in Pseudo-Geber. Knowledge of nitric acid itself does not appear in any writings before the 13th century, and arguably appears first in Pseudo-Geber. Silver nitrate probably appears in Albertus Magnus
Albertus Magnus
Albertus Magnus, O.P. , also known as Albert the Great and Albert of Cologne, is a Catholic saint. He was a German Dominican friar and a bishop, who achieved fame for his comprehensive knowledge of and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science and religion. Those such as James A. Weisheipl...
in the 13th century, and is not found earlier.
The chemistry historian Eric John Holmyard
Eric John Holmyard
Eric John Holmyard was an English science teacher at Clifton College, and historian of science and technology.-Scholar:His scholarly work included rectification of accounts of the history of alchemy, particularly in relation with Islamic science. He translated texts from Arabic and Latin, and...
in his 1957 book Alchemy writes:
Another chemistry historian writes that the question of Geber's identity, whether he is the original Jābir or a "pseudo-Geber" adopting his name, is "still in dispute", but then proceeds himself to call Geber "a Latin author". The chemistry historians who think the question is still in dispute are few and far between. However, the identity of this Latin author remains a mystery. He may have lived in Italy or Spain, or both. Some books in the Geber corpus may have been written by authors that post-date the author of the Summa Perfectionis. As mentioned already, the contents of most of the other books in the corpus are mostly recapitulations of the Summa Perfectionis. The one entitled De Inventione Veritatis, though mostly a recapitulation of Summa Perfectionis, has the earliest known recipe for the preparation of nitric acid."
The 1991 book by William R. Newman, The Summa perfectionis of Pseudo-Geber: A critical edition, translation, and study, has 250 pages of critical introduction, followed by 400 pages of footnoted Latin text and 150 pages of footnoted English translation. The critical introduction argues that the author of the Summa perfectionis was Paul of Taranto
Paul of Taranto
Paul of Taranto was a 13th century Franciscan alchemist and author from southern Italy. Perhaps the most recognized of his works is his Theorica et practica, which defends alchemical principles by describing the theoretical and practical reasoning behind it...
.
Contents of Pseudo-Geber Corpus
Its author assumed that all metalMetal
A metal , is an element, compound, or alloy that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat. Metals are usually malleable and shiny, that is they reflect most of incident light...
s are composed of unified sulfur
Sulfur
Sulfur or sulphur is the chemical element with atomic number 16. In the periodic table it is represented by the symbol S. It is an abundant, multivalent non-metal. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with chemical formula S8. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow...
and mercury
Mercury (element)
Mercury is a chemical element with the symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is also known as quicksilver or hydrargyrum...
corpuscles and gave detailed descriptions of metallic properties in those terms. He explained the use of an elixir
Elixir
An elixir is a clear, sweet-flavored liquid used for medicinal purposes, to be taken orally and intended to cure one's ills. When used as a pharmaceutical preparation, an elixir contains at least one active ingredient designed to be taken orally....
in transmuting base metals into gold
Gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...
(see philosopher's stone
Philosopher's stone
The philosopher's stone is a legendary alchemical substance said to be capable of turning base metals into gold or silver. It was also sometimes believed to be an elixir of life, useful for rejuvenation and possibly for achieving immortality. For many centuries, it was the most sought-after goal...
) and defended alchemy at length against the charge that transmuation of metals was impossible. His practical directions for laboratory procedures were so clear that it is obvious he was familiar with many chemical operations. His works contain the first recipes for producing mineral acids. His works on chemistry were not equaled until the 16th century writings of chemist Vannoccio Biringuccio
Vannoccio Biringuccio
- External links :*...
, mineralogist Georgius Agricola, and the German alchemist Lazarus Ercker.