Plebidonax deltoides
Encyclopedia
Plebidonax deltoides, known as pipi in the eastern Australia
n states, and Goolwa cockle in South Australia
, is a small, edible saltwater clam or marine
bivalve mollusc of the family
Donacidae
, endemic
to Australia
. It was previously known as Donax deltoides. Other names for the shellfish are Coorong cockle, ugari and eugarie.
Not to be confused with Paphies australis
, a bivalve mollusc of the family Mesodesmatidae
which is endemic
to New Zealand
. P. australis are also known as Pipi.
to Kingston
in South Australia and from Tasmania
to Fraser Island in Queensland
, with Younghusband Peninsula
(Coorong Beach) in South Australian the site of the largest stock abundance in Australia where cockles make up 85% of the total biomass. The Sir Richard Peninsula (Goolwa Beach) and Younghusband Peninsula sand dunes are composed mainly of cockle shell sediments that have formed over the last 6,600 years.
P. deltoides cockles live on high-energy beaches, the juveniles in the intertidal
and the adults in the subtidal zone. The cockles use a strong foot to bury into the sand to an average depth of 100 mm and feed by filtering phytoplankton
from the water. Cockles mature at around one year of age and live from four to five years reaching a maximum size of 80 mm. They are dioecious
serial broadcast
spawners with spawning taking place over a long period of time peaking in the spring. Larva
e drift as plankton
for four to eight weeks in the coastal currents, often travelling large distances. Cockles need heavy surf to live as the surf concentrates the phytoplankton they feed on and increases the oxygen in the water. After periods of calm weather cockles begin to die off.
in South Australia and it was not until Italian
immigrants introduced vongole into restaurants in the 1990s that prices increased to where they became viable for commercial fishing. In 2004, regulations regarding the human consumption of cockles were included into the 1982 Fisheries Act and 32 licenses to harvest unlimited quantities were offered at $150,000 each. Imported Asia
n cockles have since largely replaced the Goolwa cockle as bait due to the lower cost.
The Cockle Train, the oldest steel-tracked railway in Australia, was built in 1854 from Port Elliot
to Goolwa
in order to transfer cargo from ocean going vessels to river boats. The train acquired it name due to its extensive use by colonists to collect cockles from beaches near the River Murray
Mouth
. Originally 11 km (6.8 mi) in length the line was extended to Victor Harbor
in 1864 and is now a popular tourist attraction
of 36,800 tonnes was introduced to manage the resource and commercial fishing was restricted to the Younghusband Peninsula, from a point 2 km east of the centre of the Murray Mouth
to Kingston
with recreational fishers banned from catching in these areas. The quota became controversial when it was found that 11 of the licenses, primarily multi generational local family fishing companies, were allocated only 1% of the quota each which would fail to cover their overheads while licenses supplying European markets were allocated up to 15% each. Two groups were formed to lobby Parliament to protect their interests, the Goolwa Cockle Working Group to represent the 10 large quota holders and the Southern Fisherman’s Association representing the small quotas. A politician supporting the small quota holders, Mitch Williams
, claimed the government was deliberately trying to cut the number of people in the industry to possibly just five or six. The South Australian Legislative Council
overturned the quotas on 23 June 2008 citing that "they tip the balance in favour of some fishers to the detriment of others". The Fisheries Minister, Rory McEwen
threatened to re-promulgate the quotas and the Legislative Council has still to decide whether to disallow the regulation a second time if it is re-introduced. Due to the controversy it remains unknown whether fishermen would harvest as many cockles as they can as fast as they can until the total quota limit is reached or abide by their existing share allocation for the 2009 season.
The Fisheries Department is currently investigating increasing the minimum cockle size from 35 millimetres (1.4 in) for the 2011 season.
Recreational fishers are now permitted to collect cockles on the Younghusband Peninsula between 28 Mile Beach and Kingston jetty. Commercial fishers who do not have a quota may take cockles for their own personal use as bait with a catch limit of 10 kg (22 lb) per day. It is illegal for commercial fishers without quotas to sell or trade cockles. The size limit was not increased but will instead be reviewed annually and the Goolwa cockle was officially renamed Pipi by PIRSA.
beaches in "masive quantities" until depletion of stocks in the 1970s reduced the fishery to recreational fishers. Recreational fishers were limited to five litres a person per day until this was reduced to two litres in 2009 due to concern over family groups collecting far in excess of regulations. Recreational fishers must have a fishing licence and are prohibited from using tools, Pipis must be dug up using hands or feet only.
biotoxins. Commercial harvesting in N.S.W. is by hand with 99% of the commercial catch being taken north of Sydney
, with half from Stockton Beach. To share the resource and to minimise harvesting for sale on the black market, recreational fishers were allowed a bag limit of 50 "pipis" per day which are by law are only to be used for bait due to a number of bio-toxin poisoning cases. According to a 1999 survey, recreational fishers were estimated to take around 45 tonnes per year, 92% for consumption and 8% for bait.
In 2011 following concerns that the fishery may collapse the Department of Primary Industries implemented a partial season closure and minimum commercial size limit of 40 mm while recreational fishing has not been further constrained. The NSW Status Of Fisheries lists the Pipi exploitation status as Uncertain.
fisheries of the surf clam, Donax deltoides
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
n states, and Goolwa cockle in South Australia
South Australia
South Australia is a state of Australia in the southern central part of the country. It covers some of the most arid parts of the continent; with a total land area of , it is the fourth largest of Australia's six states and two territories.South Australia shares borders with all of the mainland...
, is a small, edible saltwater clam or marine
Marine (ocean)
Marine is an umbrella term. As an adjective it is usually applicable to things relating to the sea or ocean, such as marine biology, marine ecology and marine geology...
bivalve mollusc of the family
Family (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
Donacidae
Donacidae
Donacidae, the bean clams or wedge shells, is a family of bivalve molluscs of the order Veneroida. The family is related to the Tellins.The Donacidae are prolific filter feeders, and are an important part of coastal food chains where they occur...
, endemic
Endemic (ecology)
Endemism is the ecological state of being unique to a defined geographic location, such as an island, nation or other defined zone, or habitat type; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsewhere. For example, all species of lemur are endemic to the...
to Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
. It was previously known as Donax deltoides. Other names for the shellfish are Coorong cockle, ugari and eugarie.
Not to be confused with Paphies australis
Paphies australis
Paphies australis or pipi is a bivalve mollusc of the family Mesodesmatidae, endemic to New Zealand.The pipi is a shellfish with a solid white, elongated symmetrical shell with the apex at the middle. It is covered by a thin yellow periostracum...
, a bivalve mollusc of the family Mesodesmatidae
Mesodesmatidae
Mesodesmatidae is a family of marine bivalve clams of the order Veneroida.-Genera:* Atactodea Dall, 1895* Donacilla* Mesodesma Deshayes, 1832* Monterosatus* Paphies Lesson, 1830-References:...
which is endemic
Endemic (ecology)
Endemism is the ecological state of being unique to a defined geographic location, such as an island, nation or other defined zone, or habitat type; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsewhere. For example, all species of lemur are endemic to the...
to New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
. P. australis are also known as Pipi.
Life cycle
P. deltoides is an edible bivalve mollusc primarily found from the Eyre PeninsulaEyre Peninsula
Eyre Peninsula is a triangular peninsula in South Australia. It is bounded on the east by Spencer Gulf, the west by the Great Australian Bight, and the north by the Gawler Ranges. It is named after explorer Edward John Eyre who explored some of it in 1839-1841. The coastline was first explored by...
to Kingston
Kingston SE, South Australia
Kingston SE is a town approximately 297 km southeast of Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, and 44 km from the town of Robe. It is at the southeastern end of Encounter Bay and the Coorong. At the 2006 census, Kingston SE had a population of 1,443.-History:The town was named after...
in South Australia and from Tasmania
Tasmania
Tasmania is an Australian island and state. It is south of the continent, separated by Bass Strait. The state includes the island of Tasmania—the 26th largest island in the world—and the surrounding islands. The state has a population of 507,626 , of whom almost half reside in the greater Hobart...
to Fraser Island in Queensland
Queensland
Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern section of the mainland continent. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean...
, with Younghusband Peninsula
Younghusband Peninsula
Younghusband Peninsula is a long narrow peninsula in South Australia, at . It separates Encounter Bay which is part of the Southern Ocean from the Coorong which is part of the estuary of the River Murray. It lies entirely within the Coorong National Park. The peninsula is over 110 kilometres long,...
(Coorong Beach) in South Australian the site of the largest stock abundance in Australia where cockles make up 85% of the total biomass. The Sir Richard Peninsula (Goolwa Beach) and Younghusband Peninsula sand dunes are composed mainly of cockle shell sediments that have formed over the last 6,600 years.
P. deltoides cockles live on high-energy beaches, the juveniles in the intertidal
Intertidal zone
The intertidal zone is the area that is above water at low tide and under water at high tide . This area can include many different types of habitats, with many types of animals like starfish, sea urchins, and some species of coral...
and the adults in the subtidal zone. The cockles use a strong foot to bury into the sand to an average depth of 100 mm and feed by filtering phytoplankton
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton are the autotrophic component of the plankton community. The name comes from the Greek words φυτόν , meaning "plant", and πλαγκτός , meaning "wanderer" or "drifter". Most phytoplankton are too small to be individually seen with the unaided eye...
from the water. Cockles mature at around one year of age and live from four to five years reaching a maximum size of 80 mm. They are dioecious
Dioecious
Dioecy is the property of a group of biological organisms that have males and females, but not members that have organs of both sexes at the same time. I.e., those whose individual members can usually produce only one type of gamete; each individual organism is thus distinctly female or male...
serial broadcast
spawners with spawning taking place over a long period of time peaking in the spring. Larva
Larva
A larva is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle...
e drift as plankton
Plankton
Plankton are any drifting organisms that inhabit the pelagic zone of oceans, seas, or bodies of fresh water. That is, plankton are defined by their ecological niche rather than phylogenetic or taxonomic classification...
for four to eight weeks in the coastal currents, often travelling large distances. Cockles need heavy surf to live as the surf concentrates the phytoplankton they feed on and increases the oxygen in the water. After periods of calm weather cockles begin to die off.
South Australia
The cockle was primarily used as baitFishing bait
Fishing bait is any substance used to attract and catch fish, e.g. on the end of a fishing hook, or inside a fish trap. Traditionally, nightcrawlers, insects, and smaller bait fish have been used for this purpose...
in South Australia and it was not until Italian
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
immigrants introduced vongole into restaurants in the 1990s that prices increased to where they became viable for commercial fishing. In 2004, regulations regarding the human consumption of cockles were included into the 1982 Fisheries Act and 32 licenses to harvest unlimited quantities were offered at $150,000 each. Imported Asia
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
n cockles have since largely replaced the Goolwa cockle as bait due to the lower cost.
The Cockle Train, the oldest steel-tracked railway in Australia, was built in 1854 from Port Elliot
Port Elliot, South Australia
Port Elliot is a town in South Australia toward the eastern end of the south coast of the Fleurieu Peninsula. It is situated on the sheltered Horseshoe Bay, a small bay off the much larger Encounter Bay...
to Goolwa
Goolwa, South Australia
Goolwa is a historic river port on the Murray River near the Murray Mouth in South Australia, and joined by a bridge to Hindmarsh Island. The name "Goolwa" means "elbow" in Ngarrindjeri, the local Aboriginal language....
in order to transfer cargo from ocean going vessels to river boats. The train acquired it name due to its extensive use by colonists to collect cockles from beaches near the River Murray
Murray River
The Murray River is Australia's longest river. At in length, the Murray rises in the Australian Alps, draining the western side of Australia's highest mountains and, for most of its length, meanders across Australia's inland plains, forming the border between New South Wales and Victoria as it...
Mouth
Murray Mouth
Murray Mouth is the point at which the River Murray meets the southern Southern Ocean. The Murray Mouth's location is changeable. Historical records show that the channel out to sea moves along the sand dunes over time...
. Originally 11 km (6.8 mi) in length the line was extended to Victor Harbor
Victor Harbor, South Australia
Victor Harbor is a city located on the coast of the Fleurieu Peninsula, about 80 km south of Adelaide, South Australia. The city is the largest population centre on the peninsula, with an economy based upon agriculture, fisheries and various industries...
in 1864 and is now a popular tourist attraction
Cockle controversy
During the 2008 season, due to surging demand and decreasing catches, a quotaProduction quota
A production quota is a goal for the production of a good. It is typically set by a government or an organization, and can be applied to an individual worker, firm, industry or country. Quotas can be set high to encourage production, or can be used to limit production to control the supply of goods...
of 36,800 tonnes was introduced to manage the resource and commercial fishing was restricted to the Younghusband Peninsula, from a point 2 km east of the centre of the Murray Mouth
Murray Mouth
Murray Mouth is the point at which the River Murray meets the southern Southern Ocean. The Murray Mouth's location is changeable. Historical records show that the channel out to sea moves along the sand dunes over time...
to Kingston
Kingston SE, South Australia
Kingston SE is a town approximately 297 km southeast of Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, and 44 km from the town of Robe. It is at the southeastern end of Encounter Bay and the Coorong. At the 2006 census, Kingston SE had a population of 1,443.-History:The town was named after...
with recreational fishers banned from catching in these areas. The quota became controversial when it was found that 11 of the licenses, primarily multi generational local family fishing companies, were allocated only 1% of the quota each which would fail to cover their overheads while licenses supplying European markets were allocated up to 15% each. Two groups were formed to lobby Parliament to protect their interests, the Goolwa Cockle Working Group to represent the 10 large quota holders and the Southern Fisherman’s Association representing the small quotas. A politician supporting the small quota holders, Mitch Williams
Mitch Williams (Australian politician)
Michael Richard "Mitch" Williams is a South Australian Liberal politician and farmer. He is currently the deputy opposition leader in the South Australian parliament. He resigned from the Liberal Party and was elected to the safe Liberal seat of MacKillop in the state's south east at the 1997...
, claimed the government was deliberately trying to cut the number of people in the industry to possibly just five or six. The South Australian Legislative Council
South Australian Legislative Council
The Legislative Council, or upper house, is one of the two chambers of the Parliament of South Australia. Its central purpose is to act as a house of review for legislation passed through the lower house, the House of Assembly...
overturned the quotas on 23 June 2008 citing that "they tip the balance in favour of some fishers to the detriment of others". The Fisheries Minister, Rory McEwen
Rory McEwen
Rory McEwen , Australian politician, was the independent member for the seats of Gordon and Mount Gambier in the South Australian House of Assembly....
threatened to re-promulgate the quotas and the Legislative Council has still to decide whether to disallow the regulation a second time if it is re-introduced. Due to the controversy it remains unknown whether fishermen would harvest as many cockles as they can as fast as they can until the total quota limit is reached or abide by their existing share allocation for the 2009 season.
2009 season
The November 2008 to May 2009 cockle season was closed after the fishery dramatically collapsed with more than 95% of the catch consisting of undersize juveniles. A Parliamentary enquiry is investigating Department of Primary Industries and Resources (PIRSA) for its failure to manage the fishery. An independent organisation, The Goolwa Pipi Harvesters Association was inaugurated in October 2009 and tasked with ensuring the sustainable development of the cockle retail and export industry. The initial quota for future seasons has been set at 600 tonnes annually, which is less than 2% of the 2008 quota.2010 season
In October 2009 the government reduced the commercial quota to 300 tonnes and delayed the start of the 2010 season until December. Previously, recreational fishers had been requested to voluntarily limit their catches to 600 cockles per day however, a new recreational bag limit of 300 cockles per person was now enforceable by law. During the weekend of 9–10 January fisheries officials patrolled the Victor Harbor and Goolwa Beaches inspecting over 1000 recreational catches. Four fishers were fined for exceeding the bag limit and 10 for taking undersize cockles, 15,000 undersized cockles were returned to the water.The Fisheries Department is currently investigating increasing the minimum cockle size from 35 millimetres (1.4 in) for the 2011 season.
2011 season
Due to a recovery of the cockle stocks, the State Government increased the commercial quota from 300 to 330 tonnes for the 2011 season, the start of which was voluntarily delayed until 1 December 2010.Recreational fishers are now permitted to collect cockles on the Younghusband Peninsula between 28 Mile Beach and Kingston jetty. Commercial fishers who do not have a quota may take cockles for their own personal use as bait with a catch limit of 10 kg (22 lb) per day. It is illegal for commercial fishers without quotas to sell or trade cockles. The size limit was not increased but will instead be reviewed annually and the Goolwa cockle was officially renamed Pipi by PIRSA.
Victoria
Pipis were taken commercially from South GippslandSouth Gippsland
South Gippsland, a region of Gippsland in Victoria, Australia, is a well-watered region consisting of low, rolling hills descending to the coast in the south and the Latrobe Valley in the north. Low granite hills continue into Wilsons Promontory, the southernmost point of Victoria and mainland...
beaches in "masive quantities" until depletion of stocks in the 1970s reduced the fishery to recreational fishers. Recreational fishers were limited to five litres a person per day until this was reduced to two litres in 2009 due to concern over family groups collecting far in excess of regulations. Recreational fishers must have a fishing licence and are prohibited from using tools, Pipis must be dug up using hands or feet only.
New South Wales
A small commercial fishery with no size or catch limit has existed since the 1950s, harvesting from 100 to 450 tonnes per year in 1990s although this tonnage declined from 1997 due to contamination from algaeAlgae
Algae are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelps that grow to 65 meters in length. They are photosynthetic like plants, and "simple" because their tissues are not organized into the many...
biotoxins. Commercial harvesting in N.S.W. is by hand with 99% of the commercial catch being taken north of Sydney
Sydney
Sydney is the most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. As of June 2010, the greater metropolitan area had an approximate population of 4.6 million people...
, with half from Stockton Beach. To share the resource and to minimise harvesting for sale on the black market, recreational fishers were allowed a bag limit of 50 "pipis" per day which are by law are only to be used for bait due to a number of bio-toxin poisoning cases. According to a 1999 survey, recreational fishers were estimated to take around 45 tonnes per year, 92% for consumption and 8% for bait.
In 2011 following concerns that the fishery may collapse the Department of Primary Industries implemented a partial season closure and minimum commercial size limit of 40 mm while recreational fishing has not been further constrained. The NSW Status Of Fisheries lists the Pipi exploitation status as Uncertain.
External links
- Australian Government Department of Environment
- A comparison between the commercial and recreational
fisheries of the surf clam, Donax deltoides
- WikiSpecies