Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik
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Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik ' onMouseout='HidePop("32883")' href="/topics/Greek_language">Greek
sources , Masalmas; ) was an Umayyad
prince and one of the most prominent Arab generals of the early decades of the 8th century, leading several campaigns against the Byzantine Empire
and the Khazar Khaganate. He achieved great fame especially for leading the second and last Arab siege of the Byzantine capital Constantinople
, and for strengthening the Muslim presence in the Caucasus, among other things as the "founder of Islamic Derbent
".
Caliph
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan and half-brother of the caliphs Al-Walid I, Sulayman
, Yazid II
and Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik
. As his mother was a slave however, he was excluded from the line of succession.
He is first mentioned as leading, along with al-'Abbas ibn al-Walid, the annual summer campaigns against Byzantium (ṣawā'if) in 705. His first major expedition was the 707–708 campaign
against the Byzantine
city of Tyana
, which was launched in retaliation for the defeat and death of the distinguished general Maimun the Mardaite the year before. The Arabs defeated a Byzantine relief force in spring 708, whereupon the city surrendered itself. A few months later, in the same summer, Maslamah led another expedition into Anatolia, and defeated a Byzantine army near Amorium
, while in 709 he raided into Isauria
.
In the same year, Maslamah was appointed military governor of Armenia
and Azerbaijan
, succeeding his uncle Muhammad ibn Marwan
. In addition to the post of governor of the Jund Qinnasrin
, which he already held, this effectively gave him complete control of the Caliphate's entire northwestern border. From this post he launched several campaigns against Byzantium, devastating Galatia
and sacking Amaseia in 712, and taking Melitene in 714. He was also the first to establish the Caliphate's presence north of the Caucasus
, leading to the commencement of direct conflict with the Khazars
(see Khazar–Arab Wars). In 710 and again in 714, he marched his army up to Bab al-Abwab (Derbent
), which he took and destroyed during the latter expedition.
From 715 he was the leading general in Sulayman's plans to conquer the Byzantine capital, Constantinople
; after advancing with his army through Asia Minor, he led the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople in 717–718, but was unable to overcome the Byzantine defences. His navy was repulsed by Greek fire
, and his army suffered from disease and Bulgar
attacks, so that he was recalled in August 718 by Umar II
. According to the 10th-century De Administrando Imperio
, at that time he convinced the Byzantines to build Constantinople's first mosque
, near the city's praetorium
. Later Ottoman
tradition also ascribed the building of the Arap Mosque (located outside Constantinople proper in Galata
) to Maslamah, although it erroneously dated this to around 686, probably confusing Maslamah's attack with the first Arab siege in the 670s. In reality, the mosque near the praetorium was probably erected in about 860, as a result of an Arab embassy in that year.
After his failure at Constantinople, he was dispatched to Iraq
, to quell the Kharijites
. After Umar's death and the accession of his brother Yazid II in 720, he was tasked with the suppression of the revolt of Yazid ibn al-Muhallab
, whom he defeated and killed in August 720. He nevertheless fell out of favour with the Caliph, who resented and feared his power as governor of both Iraqs, as well as his interfering in the succession: Maslamah favoured his brother Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik over Yazid's son Walid
. Yazid soon recalled Maslamah from his post, ostensibly because he had failed to deliver his provinces' tax haul to Damascus.
Maslamah re-emerges in 725, when Hisham, who had just become Caliph, sent him to he replace al-Djarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami in the Caucasus front against the Khazars. Initially however Maslamah was mostly active in the Byzantine front, and the war against the Khazars was delegated to al-Harith ibn Amr al-Ta'i. In winter 725, Maslamah led an expedition against Asia Minor from Melitene, which culminated in the sack of Caesarea on 13 January 726. Along with the capture of Gangra by Abdallah al-Battal in 727, this was one of the major successes of Arab arms against the Byzantines in the 720s. A few months later, he also led the otherwise unremarkable northern summer expedition into Byzantine territory. In 727–728, his attention was diverted by Khazar attacks which reached deep into Azerbaijan
. Although Maslamah was able to drive them back and recover control of the Darial Pass, his 728 campaign across the Caucasus was difficult, bloody and indecisive. Maslamah's troops were reportedly engaged in up to thirty or forty days of constant fighting in miserable weather, and although he claimed victory in a battle over the Khazar khagan
himself, the expedition did not achieve any results, and came close to being defeated. Certainly it did little to stop Khazar attacks south of the Caucasus, which resumed in 729. Maslamah was removed from office in the same year, and replaced by al-Djarrah. He is then recorded by the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor
as having been responsible for the sack of the fortress of Charsianon
in late 730, but Arab sources credit Mu'awiyah ibn Hisham
for this act.
In the Caucasus however, the situation quickly deteriorated after Maslamah's departure. While al-Djarrah campaigned north of the Caucasus, the Khazars swung behind him and attacked his main base, Ardabil
. Hastening to relieve the city, al-Djarrah was defeated and killed, and his army practically annihilated in a battle outside the city on 9 December 730. The veteran general Sa'id ibn Amr al-Harashi managed to recover the situation and defeat the Khazar army. The Caliph however appointed Maslamah as the new governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan. Maslamah, allegedly out of jealousy for Sa'id's successes, had Sa'id imprisoned until Hisham ordered his release. Throughout 730 and 731 Maslamah, with a large army at his disposal, cleared the provinces south of the Caucasus of the Khazars, and then advanced beyond the mountains, sacking a couple of settlements and defeating the khagan in pitched battle. He also recovered the strategic fortress of Bab al-Awbab from the Khazars who had occupied it by poisoning its water supply, and resettled it with 24,000 soldiers. His tenure however was evidently judged as not successful enough, and he was replaced on 3 March 732 by Marwan ibn Muhammad.
Maslamah thereafter retired from public life, possibly to his extensive estates in northern Syria. He died on 24 December 738.
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
sources , Masalmas; ) was an Umayyad
Umayyad
The Umayyad Caliphate was the second of the four major Arab caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. It was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph. Although the Umayyad family originally came from the...
prince and one of the most prominent Arab generals of the early decades of the 8th century, leading several campaigns against the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
and the Khazar Khaganate. He achieved great fame especially for leading the second and last Arab siege of the Byzantine capital Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
, and for strengthening the Muslim presence in the Caucasus, among other things as the "founder of Islamic Derbent
Derbent
Derbent |Lak]]: Чурул, Churul; Persian: دربند; Judæo-Tat: דארבּאנד/Дэрбэнд/Dərbənd) is a city in the Republic of Dagestan, Russia, close to the Azerbaijani border. It is the southernmost city in Russia, and it is the second most important city of Dagestan...
".
Life
Maslamah was the son of the UmayyadUmayyad
The Umayyad Caliphate was the second of the four major Arab caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. It was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph. Although the Umayyad family originally came from the...
Caliph
Caliph
The Caliph is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the ruler of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transcribed version of the Arabic word which means "successor" or "representative"...
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan and half-brother of the caliphs Al-Walid I, Sulayman
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik
Sulayman bin Abd al-Malik was an Umayyad caliph who ruled from 715 until 717. His father was Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, and he was a younger brother of the previous caliph, al-Walid I.-Early years:...
, Yazid II
Yazid II
Yazid bin Abd al-Malik or Yazid II was an Umayyad caliph who ruled from 720 until his death in 724.According to the medieval Persian historian Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, Yazid came to power on the death of Umar II on February 10, 720. His forces engaged in battle the Kharijites with whom Umar...
and Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik 10th Umayyad caliph who ruled from 723 until his death in 743. When he was born in 691 his mother named him after her father....
. As his mother was a slave however, he was excluded from the line of succession.
He is first mentioned as leading, along with al-'Abbas ibn al-Walid, the annual summer campaigns against Byzantium (ṣawā'if) in 705. His first major expedition was the 707–708 campaign
Siege of Tyana (707–708)
The Siege of Tyana in 707–708 was carried out by the Umayyads in retaliation for the heavy defeat of an Umayyad army under Maimun the Mardaite shortly before by the Byzantine Empire. The Arab army invaded Byzantine territory in summer 707 and laid siege to the city...
against the Byzantine
Byzantine
Byzantine usually refers to the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages.Byzantine may also refer to:* A citizen of the Byzantine Empire, or native Greek during the Middle Ages...
city of Tyana
Tyana
Tyana or Tyanna was an ancient city in the Anatolian region of Cappadocia, in modern south-central Turkey. It was the capital of a Luwian-speaking Neo-Hittite kingdom in the 1st millennium BC.-History:...
, which was launched in retaliation for the defeat and death of the distinguished general Maimun the Mardaite the year before. The Arabs defeated a Byzantine relief force in spring 708, whereupon the city surrendered itself. A few months later, in the same summer, Maslamah led another expedition into Anatolia, and defeated a Byzantine army near Amorium
Amorium
Amorium was a city in Phrygia, Asia Minor which was founded in the Hellenistic period, flourished under the Byzantine Empire, and declined after the Arab sack of 838. Its ruins are located near the village of Hisarköy, Turkey....
, while in 709 he raided into Isauria
Isauria
Isauria , in ancient geography, is a rugged isolated district in the interior of South Asia Minor, of very different extent at different periods, but generally covering what is now the district of Bozkır and its surroundings in the Konya province of Turkey, or the core of the Taurus Mountains. In...
.
In the same year, Maslamah was appointed military governor of Armenia
Armenia
Armenia , officially the Republic of Armenia , is a landlocked mountainous country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia...
and Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan , officially the Republic of Azerbaijan is the largest country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west, and Iran to...
, succeeding his uncle Muhammad ibn Marwan
Muhammad ibn Marwan
Muḥammad ibn Marwān ibn al-Ḥakam was an Umayyad prince and one of the most important generals of the Caliphate in the period 690–710, completing the Arab conquest of Armenia...
. In addition to the post of governor of the Jund Qinnasrin
Jund Qinnasrin
Jund Qinnasrin was one of five sub-provinces of Syria under the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphate, organized soon after the Muslim conquest of Syria in the 7th century CE. Initially, its capital was Qinnasrin, but as the city declined in population and wealth, the capital was moved to Aleppo...
, which he already held, this effectively gave him complete control of the Caliphate's entire northwestern border. From this post he launched several campaigns against Byzantium, devastating Galatia
Galatia
Ancient Galatia was an area in the highlands of central Anatolia in modern Turkey. Galatia was named for the immigrant Gauls from Thrace , who settled here and became its ruling caste in the 3rd century BC, following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC. It has been called the "Gallia" of...
and sacking Amaseia in 712, and taking Melitene in 714. He was also the first to establish the Caliphate's presence north of the Caucasus
Caucasus
The Caucasus, also Caucas or Caucasia , is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia, and situated between the Black and the Caspian sea...
, leading to the commencement of direct conflict with the Khazars
Khazars
The Khazars were semi-nomadic Turkic people who established one of the largest polities of medieval Eurasia, with the capital of Atil and territory comprising much of modern-day European Russia, western Kazakhstan, eastern Ukraine, Azerbaijan, large portions of the northern Caucasus , parts of...
(see Khazar–Arab Wars). In 710 and again in 714, he marched his army up to Bab al-Abwab (Derbent
Derbent
Derbent |Lak]]: Чурул, Churul; Persian: دربند; Judæo-Tat: דארבּאנד/Дэрбэнд/Dərbənd) is a city in the Republic of Dagestan, Russia, close to the Azerbaijani border. It is the southernmost city in Russia, and it is the second most important city of Dagestan...
), which he took and destroyed during the latter expedition.
From 715 he was the leading general in Sulayman's plans to conquer the Byzantine capital, Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
; after advancing with his army through Asia Minor, he led the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople in 717–718, but was unable to overcome the Byzantine defences. His navy was repulsed by Greek fire
Greek fire
Greek fire was an incendiary weapon used by the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines typically used it in naval battles to great effect as it could continue burning while floating on water....
, and his army suffered from disease and Bulgar
First Bulgarian Empire
The First Bulgarian Empire was a medieval Bulgarian state founded in the north-eastern Balkans in c. 680 by the Bulgars, uniting with seven South Slavic tribes...
attacks, so that he was recalled in August 718 by Umar II
Umar II
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz was an Umayyad caliph who ruled from 717 to 720. He was also a cousin of the former caliph, being the son of Abd al-Malik's younger brother, Abd al-Aziz. He was also a great-grandson of the companion of the Prophet Muhammad, Umar bin Al-Khattab.-Lineage:Umar was born around...
. According to the 10th-century De Administrando Imperio
De Administrando Imperio
De Administrando Imperio is the Latin title of a Greek work written by the 10th-century Eastern Roman Emperor Constantine VII. The Greek title of the work is...
, at that time he convinced the Byzantines to build Constantinople's first mosque
Mosque
A mosque is a place of worship for followers of Islam. The word is likely to have entered the English language through French , from Portuguese , from Spanish , and from Berber , ultimately originating in — . The Arabic word masjid literally means a place of prostration...
, near the city's praetorium
Praetorium
- Etemology :The praetorium, also spelled prœtorium or pretorium, was originally used to identify the general’s tent within a Roman Castra, Castellum, or encampment. The word originates from the name of the chief Roman magistrate, known as Praetor...
. Later Ottoman
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
tradition also ascribed the building of the Arap Mosque (located outside Constantinople proper in Galata
Galata
Galata or Galatae is a neighbourhood in the Beyoğlu district on the European side of Istanbul, the largest city of Turkey. Galata is located at the northern shore of the Golden Horn, the inlet which separates it from the historic peninsula of old Constantinople. The Golden Horn is crossed by...
) to Maslamah, although it erroneously dated this to around 686, probably confusing Maslamah's attack with the first Arab siege in the 670s. In reality, the mosque near the praetorium was probably erected in about 860, as a result of an Arab embassy in that year.
After his failure at Constantinople, he was dispatched to Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
, to quell the Kharijites
Kharijites
Kharijites is a general term embracing various Muslims who, while initially supporting the authority of the final Rashidun Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib, the son-in-law and cousin of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, then later rejected his leadership...
. After Umar's death and the accession of his brother Yazid II in 720, he was tasked with the suppression of the revolt of Yazid ibn al-Muhallab
Yazid ibn al-Muhallab
Yazid ibn al-Muhallab was a provincial governor in the time of the Umayyad dynasty.In A.H. 78 Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf appointed al-Muhallab Khurasan's governor. In A.H. 82 al-Muhallab's son Mughirah died and al-Muhallab sent Yazid to replace him. Soon afterwards al-Muhallab died and al-Hajjaj...
, whom he defeated and killed in August 720. He nevertheless fell out of favour with the Caliph, who resented and feared his power as governor of both Iraqs, as well as his interfering in the succession: Maslamah favoured his brother Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik over Yazid's son Walid
Al-Walid II
Walid ibn Yazid or Walid II was an Umayyad caliph who ruled from 743 until 744. He succeeded his uncle, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik....
. Yazid soon recalled Maslamah from his post, ostensibly because he had failed to deliver his provinces' tax haul to Damascus.
Maslamah re-emerges in 725, when Hisham, who had just become Caliph, sent him to he replace al-Djarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami in the Caucasus front against the Khazars. Initially however Maslamah was mostly active in the Byzantine front, and the war against the Khazars was delegated to al-Harith ibn Amr al-Ta'i. In winter 725, Maslamah led an expedition against Asia Minor from Melitene, which culminated in the sack of Caesarea on 13 January 726. Along with the capture of Gangra by Abdallah al-Battal in 727, this was one of the major successes of Arab arms against the Byzantines in the 720s. A few months later, he also led the otherwise unremarkable northern summer expedition into Byzantine territory. In 727–728, his attention was diverted by Khazar attacks which reached deep into Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan , officially the Republic of Azerbaijan is the largest country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west, and Iran to...
. Although Maslamah was able to drive them back and recover control of the Darial Pass, his 728 campaign across the Caucasus was difficult, bloody and indecisive. Maslamah's troops were reportedly engaged in up to thirty or forty days of constant fighting in miserable weather, and although he claimed victory in a battle over the Khazar khagan
Khagan
Khagan or qagan , alternatively spelled kagan, khaghan, qaghan, or chagan, is a title of imperial rank in the Mongolian and Turkic languages equal to the status of emperor and someone who rules a khaganate...
himself, the expedition did not achieve any results, and came close to being defeated. Certainly it did little to stop Khazar attacks south of the Caucasus, which resumed in 729. Maslamah was removed from office in the same year, and replaced by al-Djarrah. He is then recorded by the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor
Theophanes the Confessor
Saint Theophanes Confessor was a member of the Byzantine aristocracy, who became a monk and chronicler. He is venerated on March 12 in the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Church .-Biography:Theophanes was born in Constantinople of wealthy and noble iconodule parents: Isaac,...
as having been responsible for the sack of the fortress of Charsianon
Charsianon
Charsianon was the name of a Byzantine fortress and the corresponding theme in the region of Cappadocia in central Anatolia .-History:...
in late 730, but Arab sources credit Mu'awiyah ibn Hisham
Mu'awiyah ibn Hisham
Mu'awiyah ibn Hisham was an Arab general, the son of the Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik .He is known chiefly for his role in the Byzantine-Arab Wars, where he led many invasions against Byzantine Asia Minor. The first campaign he led was recorded in summer 725, which was carried out in...
for this act.
In the Caucasus however, the situation quickly deteriorated after Maslamah's departure. While al-Djarrah campaigned north of the Caucasus, the Khazars swung behind him and attacked his main base, Ardabil
Ardabil
Ardabil is a historical city in north-western Iran. The name Ardabil probably comes from the Zoroastrian name of "Artavil" which means a holy place. Ardabil is the center of Ardabil Province. At the 2006 census, its population was 412,669, in 102,818 families...
. Hastening to relieve the city, al-Djarrah was defeated and killed, and his army practically annihilated in a battle outside the city on 9 December 730. The veteran general Sa'id ibn Amr al-Harashi managed to recover the situation and defeat the Khazar army. The Caliph however appointed Maslamah as the new governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan. Maslamah, allegedly out of jealousy for Sa'id's successes, had Sa'id imprisoned until Hisham ordered his release. Throughout 730 and 731 Maslamah, with a large army at his disposal, cleared the provinces south of the Caucasus of the Khazars, and then advanced beyond the mountains, sacking a couple of settlements and defeating the khagan in pitched battle. He also recovered the strategic fortress of Bab al-Awbab from the Khazars who had occupied it by poisoning its water supply, and resettled it with 24,000 soldiers. His tenure however was evidently judged as not successful enough, and he was replaced on 3 March 732 by Marwan ibn Muhammad.
Maslamah thereafter retired from public life, possibly to his extensive estates in northern Syria. He died on 24 December 738.