Maha Thiha Thura
Encyclopedia
Maha Thiha Thura was commander-in-chief
of the Burmese military
from 1768 to 1776. Regarded as a brilliant military strategist, the general is best known in Burmese history for defeating the Chinese invasions of Burma (1765–1769). He rose to be a top commander in the service of King Alaungpaya
during the latter's reunification campaigns of Burma
(1752–1759), and later commanded Burmese armies in Siam, Lan Na, Luang Prabang
(Laos), and Manipur
.
The well-respected general's support was sought after by kings. His support was crucial in securing the throne for Singu
, his son-in-law, above the remaining sons of Alaungpaya. However, the general had a fallout with his son-in-law afterwards, and was pushed aside. In 1782, he was appointed Chief Minister
by King Phaungka, who overthrew Singu. When Phaungka himself was overthrown six days later by Bodawpaya
, the new king kept Maha Thiha Thura as his Chief Minister. However, the old general, who had so often led his countrymen to victory, and had won the greatest of their wars, was found plotting against the king, and was executed for treason.
in the Mu valley
(about 100 miles northwest of Ava
) during the waning years of the Toungoo Dynasty
. Tha grew up during the period in which the authority of King Mahadhammaraza Dipadi
(r. 1733–1752) had largely dissipated across the kingdom. The Manipuris had regularly raided increasingly deeper parts of Upper Burma between the Chindwin
and Irrawaddy rivers since the mid-1720s. Tha's home region was directly on the path of the raids, and took the brunt of the raids. With the Burmese court unable to deal with the small kingdom of Manipur, the Burmese watched helplessly as the raiders torched villages, ransacked pagoda
s, and taking away captives. In 1740, the Mon
of Lower Burma broke away, and founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom
. The central authority of the king had effectively disappeared, and a profound sense of helplessness pervaded and deepened. The Hanthawaddy armies finally toppled the Toungoo Dynasty in April 1752 when they captured Ava
.
, to resist the invading armies. (Aung Zeya's resistance was just one of many disparate resistance armies that had sprung up throughout panicked Upper Burma.) Tha's home village was one of the 46 villages that joined the resistance led by Aung Zeya, who had now founded the Konbaung Dynasty
and declared himself king, styled as Alaungpaya.
Tha quickly proved his ability in Alaungpaya's initial battles against the invading Hanthawaddy forces as well as a rival resistance army from Khin-U. He was chosen as one of 68 elite commanders that would become the core leadership of Konbaung armies for the next thirty years. He served with distinction throughout Alaungpaya's reunification campaigns, which by 1758 had reunited all of Burma, conquered Manipur, and driven out the French
from Thanlyin
and the British
from Negrais.
After a dozen years of distinguished service, Maha Thiha Thura was one of the top commanders of Konbaung military, just a rung below the Sitke (commanders-in-chief) like Minhla Minkhaung Kyaw
, Minkhaung Nawrahta
, Ne Myo Thihapate
, or Maha Nawrahta
. In 1765, he served under Ne Myo Thihapate in yet another Burmese invasion of Siam. Thihapate's forces first conquered Lan Xang
in the dry season of 1765. In December 1765, a Chinese force invaded Kengtung. Though the Burmese had repelled the invasion by April of 1766, Thihapate posted Maha Thiha Thura at the Kenghung
garrison (present-day Jinghong, Yunnan), then the easternmost Burmese territory, to guard the rear of the invasion force in Siam.
In late 1766, the Chinese forces again invaded for the second time. King Hsinbyushin
ordered Maha Thiha Thura's army to cross the northern Shan states to meet the invasion force at the Bhamo
-Kaungton
corridor. His success in the Sino–Burmese War would immortalize him in Burmese history.
, the Sino-Burmese war was already in its second year. The war had begun in 1765 as a border dispute. (The Qing Dynasty
had annexed the borderlands, whose Shan sawbwas (chiefs) used to pay tribute to both kingdoms, in the 1730s. Starting in 1758, the Konbaung Dynasty
reasserted the Burmese authority in the former borderlands.) Following the failure of the first invasion however, it was no longer a border dispute to the Qianlong Emperor
of China. He reportedly was so enraged by the first defeat that the second invasion was to place a Qing claimant on the Burmese throne.
Maha Thiha Thura's army urgently marched across the northern Shan states, and arrived at the Bhamo area in early 1767. Bhamo had been taken by the Chinese, who had proceeded to lay siege to the Burmese fortress at Kaungton
, a few miles south. Maha Thiha Thura's army was part of the Burmese plan to encircle the Chinese forces. Circa April of 1766, two Burmese armies led by Ne Myo Sithu
and Balamindin
, counter-attacked, forcing the Chinese troops to retreat eastwards and then northwards where Maha Thiha Thura's army was waiting. The two other Burmese armies also followed up, and the Chinese army was destroyed entirely.
Maha Thiha Thura along with other Burmese generals arrived back to Ava in early May 1767, and were received with honors.
(son-in-law of the emperor) at the battle of Goteik Gorge
. Maha Thiha Thura's attempt to retake Hsenwi, defended by 5000 Bannermen, also failed.
After the failures, the Burmese armies switched to guerrilla warfare
. Taking advantage of the Chinese unfamiliarity with the terrain, Maha Thiha Thura and his deputy commander Teingya Minkhaung
, were particularly successful at disputing Chinese supply and communication lines. Therefore although Mingrui's main army steamrolled through Burmese defenses all the way to Singu
, just thirty miles north of Ava, its capability to proceed was seriously degraded by the lack of supplies. It also could not communicate with the northern invasion force, which could not overcome the Kaungton fort and eventually retreated back to Yunnan.
In early 1768, the Burmese forces, urgently recalled from Siam, began to arrive back. Bolstered by the reinforcements, two Burmese armies led by Maha Thiha Thura and Ne Myo Sithu finally succeeded in retaking Hsenwi. With this success, Maha Thiha Thura was now given the overall command of a 12,000 strong army to drive out Mingrui's once 30,000 strong army. (By then, the Bannerman army was no longer in top form, having already lost thousands to tropical diseases and many more suffering from starvation.) In what would become known as the Battle of Maymyo, Maha Thiha Thura successfully encircled the retreating Chinese forces at modern-day Pyinoolwin (Maymyo). The entire Chinese army was wiped out after three days of intense fighting. About 2500 were taken in as prisoners of war. Only a few dozen made it back to Yunnan. Gen. Mingrui could have escaped with that small group but committed suicide instead. (The Battle of Maymyo is now a military case study of infantry warfare against a larger army.)
, the Qianlong Emperor was shocked at the defeat of his Bannerman army. But he felt compelled to proceed as the imperial prestige was at stake. He appointed Mingrui's uncle, the chief grand councilor Fuheng, as the next governor of Yunnan. The Burmese now fully expected another major invasion, and had redeployed most of their forces from Siam to the Chinese front. Maha Thiha Thura was the commander-in-chief of the entire Burmese defenses consisted of three armies and a flotilla. His plan was to stop the enemy at the border, and prevent another Chinese penetration into their heartland.
In October 1769, Fuheng launched the largest invasion yet, with a Bannerman-led army of 60,000. Better prepared Burmese defenses successfully held the Chinese at the border. By early December, the Chinese forces were completely encircled by rings of Burmese troops. The Chinese command, which had already lost 20,000 men, and a quantity of arms and ammunition, asked for terms. The Burmese commanders were averse to granting terms, saying that the Chinese were surrounded like cattle in a pen, they were starving, and in a few days, they could be wiped out to a man. Maha Thiha Thura, who led the annihilation of Mingrui's army, realized that another wipe-out would merely stiffen the resolve of the Chinese government.
He pointed out to his commanders that war with the Chinese was quickly becoming a cancer that would finally destroy the nation. Compared to Chinese losses, Burmese losses were light but considered in proportion to the population, they were heavy.
The Chinese commanders decided to agree to the terms, probably because they had no other choice. At Kaungton, on 13 December 1769 (or 22 December 1769), under a 7-roofed pyathat hall, 14 Burmese and 13 Chinese officers signed a peace treaty. The Chinese burned their boats and melted down their cannon. Two days later, the Chinese withdrew.
was his son-in-law. More importantly, the Burmese military command broke down. Dissension was rampant. Field commanders increasingly acted like warlords and behaved with arrogance towards the people, and began to ignore even the king's orders. Maha Thiha Thura faced many difficulties in raising an invasion force, and had to wait until the end of rainy season in 1775 to start the invasion.
Even with a full strength invasion force, an invasion of Siam was never easy for the Burmese. Without a full strength army, the effort appeared doomed from the start. Nonetheless, Maha Thiha Thura still obeyed the orders, and marched on. He somehow fought his way though tough Siamese defenses led by king Taksin
and his deputy Chakri
, and managed to occupy Phitsanulok
and Sukhothai
provinces in northern Siam (present-day central Thailand). From there he tried to fight his way down south the new Siamese capital of Bangkok
but could not break the Siamese defenses. In one battle, the Burmese general was thoroughly impressed by the fierce resistance put up by Chakri's forces. Although he eventually won that particular battle, Maha Thiha Thura sent a message to Chakri to come and receive his congratulations in an hour of truce. Trusting him, the Siamese general appeared. Maha Thiha Thura offered his congratulations, remarking:
By June, at the start of the rainy season, the war was in a stalemate, and prospects of another conquest of Siam looked bleak. When Hsinbyushin finally died on June 10, Maha Thiha Thura decided to call off the invasion. He wanted to ensure that his son-in-law and heir-apparent Singu succeed the throne. The withdrawal's longterm impact was that the Burmese would lose most of the old Lan Na Kingdom, which had been under Burmese suzerainty since 1558. The Burmese still retained Chiang Saen
, a region in northern Lan Na but they would lose that in Bodawpaya's disastrous invasion of Siam (1785–1786).
) was next in line for the throne—hence Singu's next target—but the astute prince conducted himself to be seen as harmless that he escaped death. Prince of Badon was sent to Sagaing
where he was kept under close supervision.
In a turn of events, Singu had a major fallout with Maha Thiha Thura, the man who made him king. The general was stripped of his office of Wungyi (Minister), and sent to exile to Sagaing. Singu divorced the general's daughter in May 1777, and had her drowned in 1778. Embittered, Maha Thiha Thura now looked for a substitute to take the throne. In February 1782, Phaungkaza Maung Maung
, the eldest son of King Naungdawgyi
seized the throne, and made Maha Thiha Thura his Chief Minister. Together, they recalled Alaungpaya's surviving sons from exile, and placed them under arrest. The fourth son, Bodawpaya
escaped from prison with the help of some commanders, and seized the throne. Maung Maung's reign lasted all of six days.
Commander-in-Chief
A commander-in-chief is the commander of a nation's military forces or significant element of those forces. In the latter case, the force element may be defined as those forces within a particular region or those forces which are associated by function. As a practical term it refers to the military...
of the Burmese military
Royal Burmese Army
The Royal Burmese Army was the armed forces of the Burmese monarchy from the 9th to 19th centuries. It refers to the military forces of the Pagan Dynasty, the Ava Kingdom, the Toungoo Dynasty and the Konbaung Dynasty in chronological order...
from 1768 to 1776. Regarded as a brilliant military strategist, the general is best known in Burmese history for defeating the Chinese invasions of Burma (1765–1769). He rose to be a top commander in the service of King Alaungpaya
Alaungpaya
Alaungpaya was king of Burma from 1752 to 1760, and the founder of the Konbaung Dynasty. By his death in 1760, the former chief of a small village in Upper Burma had reunified all of Burma, subdued Manipur, recovered Lan Na, and driven out the French and the English who had given help to the...
during the latter's reunification campaigns of Burma
Konbaung-Hanthawaddy War
The Konbaung-Hanthawaddy War was the war fought between the Konbaung Dynasty and the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom of Burma from 1752 to 1757...
(1752–1759), and later commanded Burmese armies in Siam, Lan Na, Luang Prabang
Kingdom of Luang Phrabang
The Kingdom of Luang Phrabang was formed in 1707 as a result of the split of the Kingdom of Lan Xang. The monarchy was so weak that it was forced to pay tribute at various times to the Burmese and the Siamese...
(Laos), and Manipur
Manipur
Manipur is a state in northeastern India, with the city of Imphal as its capital. Manipur is bounded by the Indian states of Nagaland to the north, Mizoram to the south and Assam to the west; it also borders Burma to the east. It covers an area of...
.
The well-respected general's support was sought after by kings. His support was crucial in securing the throne for Singu
Singu Min
Singu Min was the fourth king of the Konbaung dynasty of Myanmar. The king, who came to power amid controversy, largely put an end to his father Hsinbyushin's policy of territorial expansion, which had severely depleted the kingdom's manpower and resources. He stopped his father's latest war...
, his son-in-law, above the remaining sons of Alaungpaya. However, the general had a fallout with his son-in-law afterwards, and was pushed aside. In 1782, he was appointed Chief Minister
Prime minister
A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the government. In most systems, the prime...
by King Phaungka, who overthrew Singu. When Phaungka himself was overthrown six days later by Bodawpaya
Bodawpaya
Bodawpaya was the sixth king of the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma. Born Maung Shwe Waing and later Badon Min, he was the fourth son of Alaungpaya, founder of the dynasty and the Third Burmese Empire. He was proclaimed king after deposing his nephew Phaungkaza Maung Maung, son of his oldest brother...
, the new king kept Maha Thiha Thura as his Chief Minister. However, the old general, who had so often led his countrymen to victory, and had won the greatest of their wars, was found plotting against the king, and was executed for treason.
Background
The future general was born Maung Tha in the present-day Shwebo DistrictShwebo District
Shwebo District is a district in south-central Sagaing Division of Burma . Its administrative center is the city of Shwebo.The district consists of the townships of Kanbalu, Khin-U, Kyunhla, Shwebo, Taze, Wetlet, and Ye-U....
in the Mu valley
Mu River
Mu River is a river in upper central Myanmar , and a tributary of the country's chief river the Ayeyarwady. It drains the Kabaw valley and part of the Dry Zone between the Ayeyarwady to the east and its largest tributary Chindwin River to the west, flows directly north to south for about and...
(about 100 miles northwest of Ava
Ava
Innwa is a city in the Mandalay Division of Burma , situated just to the south of Amarapura on the Ayeyarwady River. Its formal title is Ratanapura , which means City of Gems in Pali. The name Innwa means mouth of the lake, which comes from in , meaning lake, and wa , which means mouth...
) during the waning years of the Toungoo Dynasty
Toungoo Dynasty
The Toungoo Dynasty was the ruling dynasty of Burma from the mid-16th century to 1752. Its early kings Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung succeeded in reunifying the Pagan Empire for the first time since 1287, and in incorporating the Shan States for the first time...
. Tha grew up during the period in which the authority of King Mahadhammaraza Dipadi
Mahadhammaraza Dipadi
Mahadhammaraza Dipati , was the 15th and last king of Toungoo dynasty of Burma from 1733 to 1752. He was only 16 when a group of nobles selected him over more experienced princes after his father Taninganway's death in November 1733...
(r. 1733–1752) had largely dissipated across the kingdom. The Manipuris had regularly raided increasingly deeper parts of Upper Burma between the Chindwin
Chindwin River
The Chindwin River is a river in Burma , and the largest tributary of the country's chief river the Ayeyarwady . It flows entirely within Burma and is known as Ning-thi to the Manipuris.-Source:...
and Irrawaddy rivers since the mid-1720s. Tha's home region was directly on the path of the raids, and took the brunt of the raids. With the Burmese court unable to deal with the small kingdom of Manipur, the Burmese watched helplessly as the raiders torched villages, ransacked pagoda
Stupa
A stupa is a mound-like structure containing Buddhist relics, typically the remains of Buddha, used by Buddhists as a place of worship....
s, and taking away captives. In 1740, the Mon
Mon people
The Mon are an ethnic group from Burma , living mostly in Mon State, Bago Division, the Irrawaddy Delta, and along the southern Thai–Burmese border. One of the earliest peoples to reside in Southeast Asia, the Mon were responsible for the spread of Theravada Buddhism in Burma and Thailand...
of Lower Burma broke away, and founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom
Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom
The Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom was the kingdom that ruled Lower Burma and parts of Upper Burma from 1740 to 1757. The kingdom grew out of a rebellion by the Mon people, who then formed the majority in Lower Burma, against the Burman Toungoo Dynasty of Ava in Upper Burma...
. The central authority of the king had effectively disappeared, and a profound sense of helplessness pervaded and deepened. The Hanthawaddy armies finally toppled the Toungoo Dynasty in April 1752 when they captured Ava
Ava
Innwa is a city in the Mandalay Division of Burma , situated just to the south of Amarapura on the Ayeyarwady River. Its formal title is Ratanapura , which means City of Gems in Pali. The name Innwa means mouth of the lake, which comes from in , meaning lake, and wa , which means mouth...
.
Early years (1752–1765)
Tha was part of "an exceptionally proud group of men and women" of Upper Burma who longed to redress the humiliations that their once proud kingdom had suffered from in the previous three decades. A few weeks before the fall of Ava, Tha like many young men in his home region responded to the call by Aung Zeya, the chief of MoksoboShwebo
Shwebo is a city in Sagaing Division, Myanmar, located 113 km northwest of Mandalay between the Irrawaddy and the Mu rivers. The city, also called Ratanasingha , was the capital of Myanmar from 1752 to 1760 during the Konbaung period....
, to resist the invading armies. (Aung Zeya's resistance was just one of many disparate resistance armies that had sprung up throughout panicked Upper Burma.) Tha's home village was one of the 46 villages that joined the resistance led by Aung Zeya, who had now founded the Konbaung Dynasty
Konbaung dynasty
The Konbaung Dynasty was the last dynasty that ruled Burma from 1752 to 1885. The dynasty created the second largest empire in Burmese history, and continued the administrative reforms begun by the Toungoo dynasty, laying the foundations of modern state of Burma...
and declared himself king, styled as Alaungpaya.
Tha quickly proved his ability in Alaungpaya's initial battles against the invading Hanthawaddy forces as well as a rival resistance army from Khin-U. He was chosen as one of 68 elite commanders that would become the core leadership of Konbaung armies for the next thirty years. He served with distinction throughout Alaungpaya's reunification campaigns, which by 1758 had reunited all of Burma, conquered Manipur, and driven out the French
French colonial empire
The French colonial empire was the set of territories outside Europe that were under French rule primarily from the 17th century to the late 1960s. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the colonial empire of France was the second-largest in the world behind the British Empire. The French colonial empire...
from Thanlyin
Thanlyin
Thanlyin is a major port city of Myanmar, located across Bago River from the city of Yangon. Thanlyin Township comprises 17 quarters and 28 village tracts. It is home to the largest port in the country, Thilawa port.-History:...
and the British
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
from Negrais.
After a dozen years of distinguished service, Maha Thiha Thura was one of the top commanders of Konbaung military, just a rung below the Sitke (commanders-in-chief) like Minhla Minkhaung Kyaw
Minhla Minkhaung Kyaw
Minhla Minkhaung Kyaw was chief of Musket Corps of the Royal Burmese Army of the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma . He was the top general under the command of King Alaungpaya, his childhood friend. He conquered Dagon in May 1755, which later became the city of Yangon. He died in action during the battle...
, Minkhaung Nawrahta
Minkhaung Nawrahta
Minkhaung Nawrahta was a general of the Royal Burmese Army of the Konbaung Dynasty during the reign of King Alaungpaya. He is best known for his rearguard defense in the Burmese-Siamese War in Siam as the Burmese forces rushed back a dying Alaungpaya back home. The general, who was well respected...
, Ne Myo Thihapate
Ne Myo Thihapate
Ne Myo Thihapate was a general in the Royal Burmese Army of Konbaung Dynasty of Burma . The general is best known for conquering the Ayutthaya Kingdom, along with Gen. Maha Nawrahta, in April 1767.-Career:...
, or Maha Nawrahta
Maha Nawrahta
Gen. Maha Nawrahta was joint commander-in-chief of the Royal Burmese Army from 1765 to 1767. The general is best known for commanding the southern invasion force in the Burmese invasion of Siam . He and Ne Myo Thihapate jointly commanded the 14-month-long siege of Ayutthaya, the capital of Siam....
. In 1765, he served under Ne Myo Thihapate in yet another Burmese invasion of Siam. Thihapate's forces first conquered Lan Xang
Lan Xang
The Lao kingdom of Lan Xang Hom Kao was established in 1354 by Fa Ngum.Exiled as an infant to Cambodia, Prince Fa Ngum of Xieng Dong Xieng Thong married a daughter of the Khmer king. In 1349 he set out from Angkor at the head of a 10,000-man army to establish his own country...
in the dry season of 1765. In December 1765, a Chinese force invaded Kengtung. Though the Burmese had repelled the invasion by April of 1766, Thihapate posted Maha Thiha Thura at the Kenghung
Jinghong
Jinghong romanised as chiang rung, chiang hung, chengrung, cheng hung, jinghung, keng hung and muangjinghung) is the capital of Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan province, China, and the historic capital of the former Tai kingdom of Sipsongpanna.-Location:Located between 100°25' -...
garrison (present-day Jinghong, Yunnan), then the easternmost Burmese territory, to guard the rear of the invasion force in Siam.
In late 1766, the Chinese forces again invaded for the second time. King Hsinbyushin
Hsinbyushin
Hsinbyushin was king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma from 1763 to 1776. The second son of the dynasty founder Alaungpaya is best known for his wars with China and Siam, and is considered the most militaristic king of the dynasty. His successful defense against four Chinese invasions preserved...
ordered Maha Thiha Thura's army to cross the northern Shan states to meet the invasion force at the Bhamo
Bhamo
Bhamo is a city of Kachin State in northernmost part of Myanmar, located 186 km south from the capital city of Myitkyina. It is on the Ayeyarwady River. It lies within 65 km of the border with Yunnan Province, China. The population consists of Chinese and Shan, with Kachin peoples in...
-Kaungton
Kaungton
Kaungton is a village in Bhamo Township in Bhamo District in the Kachin State of north-eastern Burma..-External links:*...
corridor. His success in the Sino–Burmese War would immortalize him in Burmese history.
Sino-Burmese War (1766–1769)
Main article Sino-Burmese War (1765–1769). See also Ten Great CampaignsTen Great Campaigns
The Ten Great Campaigns were a series of wars fought during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor, much celebrated in the official Qing Dynasty annals. They included three to enlarge the area of Qing control in Central Asia: two against the Dzungars and the pacification of Xinjiang...
Second invasion
When Maha Thiha Thura received the order to march to BhamoBhamo
Bhamo is a city of Kachin State in northernmost part of Myanmar, located 186 km south from the capital city of Myitkyina. It is on the Ayeyarwady River. It lies within 65 km of the border with Yunnan Province, China. The population consists of Chinese and Shan, with Kachin peoples in...
, the Sino-Burmese war was already in its second year. The war had begun in 1765 as a border dispute. (The Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
had annexed the borderlands, whose Shan sawbwas (chiefs) used to pay tribute to both kingdoms, in the 1730s. Starting in 1758, the Konbaung Dynasty
Konbaung dynasty
The Konbaung Dynasty was the last dynasty that ruled Burma from 1752 to 1885. The dynasty created the second largest empire in Burmese history, and continued the administrative reforms begun by the Toungoo dynasty, laying the foundations of modern state of Burma...
reasserted the Burmese authority in the former borderlands.) Following the failure of the first invasion however, it was no longer a border dispute to the Qianlong Emperor
Qianlong Emperor
The Qianlong Emperor was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1735 to 8 February 1796...
of China. He reportedly was so enraged by the first defeat that the second invasion was to place a Qing claimant on the Burmese throne.
Maha Thiha Thura's army urgently marched across the northern Shan states, and arrived at the Bhamo area in early 1767. Bhamo had been taken by the Chinese, who had proceeded to lay siege to the Burmese fortress at Kaungton
Kaungton
Kaungton is a village in Bhamo Township in Bhamo District in the Kachin State of north-eastern Burma..-External links:*...
, a few miles south. Maha Thiha Thura's army was part of the Burmese plan to encircle the Chinese forces. Circa April of 1766, two Burmese armies led by Ne Myo Sithu
Ne Myo Sithu
Ne Myo Sithu was the overall commander of Burmese military forces in the first half of the Sino-Burmese War . He successfully led the Burmese armies in the first two invasions by the Chinese . In the second invasion , he began as the second-in-command of Gen. Maha Sithu but assumed the overall...
and Balamindin
Balamindin
Balamindin was a general in the Burmese army of the Konbaung Dynasty. He is best known in Burmese history for his spirited defense Fort Kaungton against repeated attacks by numerically superior Chinese invasion forces in the Sino-Burmese War . From 1766 to 1769, Balamindin commanded the fort...
, counter-attacked, forcing the Chinese troops to retreat eastwards and then northwards where Maha Thiha Thura's army was waiting. The two other Burmese armies also followed up, and the Chinese army was destroyed entirely.
Maha Thiha Thura along with other Burmese generals arrived back to Ava in early May 1767, and were received with honors.
Third invasion
Later that year, in November, a far greater invasion force (50,000-strong), led by the elite Manchu Bannermen, invaded. Maha Thiha Thura was one of four commanders in charge of Burmese defenses— Maha Sithu (the overall commander), Ne Myo Sithu, and Balamindin. But the Burmese were unaware of the much bigger Chinese strength, and did not have the numbers to defend a much larger invasion force. (The main army of Maha Sithu had only about 7000 men.) Maha Thiha Thura's smaller army was assigned to attack Hsenwi, which the Qing had seized and now set up as a supply depot. In December, Maha Sithu's main army was crushed by the 15,000-strong Bannerman army commanded by Gen. MingruiMingrui
Mingrui was governor-general of Yunnan and Guizhou from April 1767 to March 1768. A son-in-law of the Qianlong Emperor of China, Mingrui was appointed by the emperor to lead a 50,000-strong invasion force led by the elite Manchu Bannermen in the third campaign of the Qing invasions of Burma...
(son-in-law of the emperor) at the battle of Goteik Gorge
Battle of Goteik Gorge
The Battle of Goteik Gorge was a battle in the Sino–Burmese War fought between the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma and the Qing Dynasty of China in late December 1767 or early January 1768. It was the first major battle in the third invasion by the Chinese who had previously unsuccessfully invaded...
. Maha Thiha Thura's attempt to retake Hsenwi, defended by 5000 Bannermen, also failed.
After the failures, the Burmese armies switched to guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare and refers to conflicts in which a small group of combatants including, but not limited to, armed civilians use military tactics, such as ambushes, sabotage, raids, the element of surprise, and extraordinary mobility to harass a larger and...
. Taking advantage of the Chinese unfamiliarity with the terrain, Maha Thiha Thura and his deputy commander Teingya Minkhaung
Teingya Minkhaung
Teingya Minkhaung was a minister and an army general of Konbaung Dynasty of Burma . He is best known for his effective guerrilla warfare against the Chinese invasion forces in the Sino-Burmese War...
, were particularly successful at disputing Chinese supply and communication lines. Therefore although Mingrui's main army steamrolled through Burmese defenses all the way to Singu
Singu
-External links:*...
, just thirty miles north of Ava, its capability to proceed was seriously degraded by the lack of supplies. It also could not communicate with the northern invasion force, which could not overcome the Kaungton fort and eventually retreated back to Yunnan.
In early 1768, the Burmese forces, urgently recalled from Siam, began to arrive back. Bolstered by the reinforcements, two Burmese armies led by Maha Thiha Thura and Ne Myo Sithu finally succeeded in retaking Hsenwi. With this success, Maha Thiha Thura was now given the overall command of a 12,000 strong army to drive out Mingrui's once 30,000 strong army. (By then, the Bannerman army was no longer in top form, having already lost thousands to tropical diseases and many more suffering from starvation.) In what would become known as the Battle of Maymyo, Maha Thiha Thura successfully encircled the retreating Chinese forces at modern-day Pyinoolwin (Maymyo). The entire Chinese army was wiped out after three days of intense fighting. About 2500 were taken in as prisoners of war. Only a few dozen made it back to Yunnan. Gen. Mingrui could have escaped with that small group but committed suicide instead. (The Battle of Maymyo is now a military case study of infantry warfare against a larger army.)
Fourth invasion
At BeijingBeijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
, the Qianlong Emperor was shocked at the defeat of his Bannerman army. But he felt compelled to proceed as the imperial prestige was at stake. He appointed Mingrui's uncle, the chief grand councilor Fuheng, as the next governor of Yunnan. The Burmese now fully expected another major invasion, and had redeployed most of their forces from Siam to the Chinese front. Maha Thiha Thura was the commander-in-chief of the entire Burmese defenses consisted of three armies and a flotilla. His plan was to stop the enemy at the border, and prevent another Chinese penetration into their heartland.
In October 1769, Fuheng launched the largest invasion yet, with a Bannerman-led army of 60,000. Better prepared Burmese defenses successfully held the Chinese at the border. By early December, the Chinese forces were completely encircled by rings of Burmese troops. The Chinese command, which had already lost 20,000 men, and a quantity of arms and ammunition, asked for terms. The Burmese commanders were averse to granting terms, saying that the Chinese were surrounded like cattle in a pen, they were starving, and in a few days, they could be wiped out to a man. Maha Thiha Thura, who led the annihilation of Mingrui's army, realized that another wipe-out would merely stiffen the resolve of the Chinese government.
He pointed out to his commanders that war with the Chinese was quickly becoming a cancer that would finally destroy the nation. Compared to Chinese losses, Burmese losses were light but considered in proportion to the population, they were heavy.
Truce
The commanders were not convinced but Maha Thiha Thura, on his own responsibility, and without informing the king, demanded that the Chinese agree to the following terms:- The Chinese would surrender all the sawbwas and other rebels and fugitives from Burmese justice who had taken shelter in Chinese territory;
- The Chinese would undertake to respect Burmese sovereignty over those Shan states that had been historically part of Burma;
- All prisoners of war would be released;
- The emperor of China and the king of Burma would resume friendly relations, regularly exchanging embassies bearing letters of good will and presents.
The Chinese commanders decided to agree to the terms, probably because they had no other choice. At Kaungton, on 13 December 1769 (or 22 December 1769), under a 7-roofed pyathat hall, 14 Burmese and 13 Chinese officers signed a peace treaty. The Chinese burned their boats and melted down their cannon. Two days later, the Chinese withdrew.
Manipur (1770)
At Ava, Hsinbyushin was furious that his generals had acted without his knowledge, and tore up his copy of the treaty. Knowing that the king was angry, the Burmese armies were afraid to return to the capital. In January 1770, they marched to Manipur where a rebellion had begun, taking advantage of Burmese troubles with the Chinese. After a three days' battle near Langthabal, the Manipuris were defeated, and their raja fled to Assam. The Burmese raised their nominee to the throne, and returned. The king's anger had subsided; after all, they had won victories and preserved his throne. Still, the king sent Maha Thiha Thura, the decorated general, whose daughter was married to Hsinbyushin's son and heir-apparent Singu, a woman's dress to wear, and exiled him and other generals to the Shan states for a month.Siam (1775–1776)
In 1774, a rebellion flared up in Lan Na mainly due to the repressive rule of the Burmese governor there, Thado Mindin. His contemptuous treatment of the local chiefs earned him their indignation. Three of the local chiefs fled to Siam to join the Siamese which now had designs on Lan Na itself. Backed by local Lan Na, the Siamese took Chiang Mai in late 1774. Hsinbyushin, who had been in a long illness that would eventually take his life, now ordered Maha Thiha Thura to lead a fresh invasion of Siam.Preparations
But much had changed since the last invasion of Siam ten years ago. The king was dying, and the palace of full of rumors and intrigues. None of the Burmese commanders, including Maha Thiha Thura, were enthusiastic about the invasion. Maha Thiha Thura himself had a vested interest in the succession affairs as the heir-apparent SinguSingu Min
Singu Min was the fourth king of the Konbaung dynasty of Myanmar. The king, who came to power amid controversy, largely put an end to his father Hsinbyushin's policy of territorial expansion, which had severely depleted the kingdom's manpower and resources. He stopped his father's latest war...
was his son-in-law. More importantly, the Burmese military command broke down. Dissension was rampant. Field commanders increasingly acted like warlords and behaved with arrogance towards the people, and began to ignore even the king's orders. Maha Thiha Thura faced many difficulties in raising an invasion force, and had to wait until the end of rainy season in 1775 to start the invasion.
Invasion
A combined force of 35,000 was eventually raised for the Siamese theater. Maha Thiha Thura's main army invaded by the southern route from Martaban, and Ne Myo Thihapate's army from Chiang Saen in northern Lan Na, (which was still under Burmese control). From the start, the invasion was fraught with multiple issues. First, the invasion force of 35000 was too small to be effective whereas the 1765 invasion force consisted of at least 50,000 troops. More importantly, the Burmese command was in disarray. With the king on his deathbed, insubordination became increasingly rampant. Indeed, the second-in-command of the southern army, Zeya Kyaw, disagreed with Maha Thiha Thura on the invasion route, withdrew with his troops, leaving Maha Thiha Thura with a portion of the troops. (This kind of insubordination would have been unimaginable only a couple years back when the king was in full control. Amazingly, Zeya Kyaw was never punished after the war.)Even with a full strength invasion force, an invasion of Siam was never easy for the Burmese. Without a full strength army, the effort appeared doomed from the start. Nonetheless, Maha Thiha Thura still obeyed the orders, and marched on. He somehow fought his way though tough Siamese defenses led by king Taksin
Taksin
Taksin ; was the only King of the Thonburi Kingdom...
and his deputy Chakri
Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke
Phra Bat Somdet Phra Poramintharamaha Chakri Borommanat Phra Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke , posthumously titled "the Great", or Rama I , was the founder and the first monarch of the reigning House of Chakri of Siam . He ascended the throne in 1782, after defeating a rebellion which had deposed King...
, and managed to occupy Phitsanulok
Phitsanulok
Phitsanulok is an important and historic city in lower northern Thailand and is the capital of Phitsanulok Province, which stretches all the way to the Laotian border. Phitsanulok is one of the oldest cities in Thailand, founded over 600 years ago...
and Sukhothai
Sukhothai Province
Sukhothai is one of the northern provinces of Thailand. Neighboring provinces are Phrae, Uttaradit, Phitsanulok, Kamphaeng Phet, Tak, and Lampang...
provinces in northern Siam (present-day central Thailand). From there he tried to fight his way down south the new Siamese capital of Bangkok
Bangkok
Bangkok is the capital and largest urban area city in Thailand. It is known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon or simply Krung Thep , meaning "city of angels." The full name of Bangkok is Krung Thep Mahanakhon Amon Rattanakosin Mahintharayutthaya Mahadilok Phop Noppharat Ratchathani Burirom...
but could not break the Siamese defenses. In one battle, the Burmese general was thoroughly impressed by the fierce resistance put up by Chakri's forces. Although he eventually won that particular battle, Maha Thiha Thura sent a message to Chakri to come and receive his congratulations in an hour of truce. Trusting him, the Siamese general appeared. Maha Thiha Thura offered his congratulations, remarking:
- "You have bearing of a king. Perhaps you will be king one day".
By June, at the start of the rainy season, the war was in a stalemate, and prospects of another conquest of Siam looked bleak. When Hsinbyushin finally died on June 10, Maha Thiha Thura decided to call off the invasion. He wanted to ensure that his son-in-law and heir-apparent Singu succeed the throne. The withdrawal's longterm impact was that the Burmese would lose most of the old Lan Na Kingdom, which had been under Burmese suzerainty since 1558. The Burmese still retained Chiang Saen
Chiang Saen
* Amphoe Chiang Saen, a district in modern Chiang Rai Province* Chiang Saen, a capital in the ancient Lanna kingdom, and the namesake of the modern district...
, a region in northern Lan Na but they would lose that in Bodawpaya's disastrous invasion of Siam (1785–1786).
King-maker
Maha Thiha Thura rushed back in support of his son-in-law because Singu's right to succession was in direct conflict with Alaungpaya's edict that all of his sons become king in the order of seniority. Despite the fact that four of his brothers of were still alive, Hsinbyushin had ignored his father's will, and made his eldest son Singu the heir apparent. With Maha Thiha Thura's backing, Singu ascended the throne without incident. The new king killed off potential rivals to the throne as soon as he came to power. He had three of his half-brothers executed in 1776 upon his ascension. He next executed his uncle Prince of Amyint on 1 October 1777. He exiled the three remaining uncles. Prince of Badon (later King BodawpayaBodawpaya
Bodawpaya was the sixth king of the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma. Born Maung Shwe Waing and later Badon Min, he was the fourth son of Alaungpaya, founder of the dynasty and the Third Burmese Empire. He was proclaimed king after deposing his nephew Phaungkaza Maung Maung, son of his oldest brother...
) was next in line for the throne—hence Singu's next target—but the astute prince conducted himself to be seen as harmless that he escaped death. Prince of Badon was sent to Sagaing
Sagaing
Sagaing is the capital of Sagaing Region in Myanmar. Located on the Ayeyarwady River, 20 km to the southwest of Mandalay on the opposite bank of the river, Sagaing with numerous Buddhist monasteries is an important religious and monastic center. The pagodas and monasteries crowd the numerous...
where he was kept under close supervision.
In a turn of events, Singu had a major fallout with Maha Thiha Thura, the man who made him king. The general was stripped of his office of Wungyi (Minister), and sent to exile to Sagaing. Singu divorced the general's daughter in May 1777, and had her drowned in 1778. Embittered, Maha Thiha Thura now looked for a substitute to take the throne. In February 1782, Phaungkaza Maung Maung
Phaungkaza Maung Maung
Phaungkaza Maung Maung was the fifth king of the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma, whose reign lasted a week. Maung Maung, the eldest son of Naungdawgyi, the second king of the Konbaung Dynasty, was granted Phaungka in fief. On 5 February 1782, the 18-year-old Prince of Phaungka seized the throne while...
, the eldest son of King Naungdawgyi
Naungdawgyi
Naungdawgyi was king of Konbaung Dynasty of Burma from 1760 to 1763. He was a top military commander in his father Alaungpaya's reunification campaigns of the country. As king, he spent much of his short reign suppressing multiple rebellions across the newly founded kingdom from Ava and Toungoo ...
seized the throne, and made Maha Thiha Thura his Chief Minister. Together, they recalled Alaungpaya's surviving sons from exile, and placed them under arrest. The fourth son, Bodawpaya
Bodawpaya
Bodawpaya was the sixth king of the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma. Born Maung Shwe Waing and later Badon Min, he was the fourth son of Alaungpaya, founder of the dynasty and the Third Burmese Empire. He was proclaimed king after deposing his nephew Phaungkaza Maung Maung, son of his oldest brother...
escaped from prison with the help of some commanders, and seized the throne. Maung Maung's reign lasted all of six days.