List of works by Friedrich Nietzsche
Encyclopedia

Writings and philosophy

  • Aus meinem Leben, 1858 (From My Life)
  • Über Musik, 1858 (On Music)
  • Napoleon III als Praesident, 1862 (Napoleon III as a President)
  • Fatum und Geschichte, 1862 (Fate and History)
  • Willensfreiheit und Fatum, 1862 (Free Will and Fate)
  • Kann der Neidische je wahrhaft glücklich sein?, 1863 (Can the Envious Ever Be Truly Happy?)
  • Über Stimmungen, 1864 (On Tendencies)
  • Mein Leben, 1864 (My Life)
  • Homer und die klassische Philologie, 1868 (Homer and the classic Philology)
  • Über die Zukunft unserer Bildungsanstalten (On the Future of our Seminaries)
  • Fünf Vorreden zu fünf ungeschriebenen Büchern, 1872 (Five Prefaces on five unwritten Books) comprising:
  1. Über das Pathos der Wahrheit (On the Pathos of Truth)
  2. Gedanken über die Zukunft unserer Bildungsanstalten (Thoughts on the Future of Our Educational Institutions)
  3. Der griechische Staat (The Greek State)
  4. Das Verhältnis der Schopenhauerischen Philosophie zu einer deutschen Cultur (The Relation between a Schopenhauerian Philosophy and a German Culture)
  5. Homers Wettkampf (Homer's Contest)
    • Die Geburt der Tragödie, 1872 (The Birth of Tragedy
      The Birth of Tragedy
      The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music is a 19th-century work of dramatic theory by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. It was reissued in 1886 as The Birth of Tragedy, Or: Hellenism and Pessimism ...

      )
    • Über Wahrheit und Lüge im außermoralischen Sinn, 1873 (On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense)
    • Die Philosophie im tragischen Zeitalter der Griechen (Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks
      Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks
      Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks is a publication of an incomplete book by Friedrich Nietzsche. He had a clean copy made from his notes with the intention of publication. The notes were written around 1873. In it he discussed five Greek philosophers from the sixth and fifth centuries B.C....

      )
    • Unzeitgemässe Betrachtungen (Untimely Meditations) comprising:
  6. David Strauss: der Bekenner und der Schriftsteller, 1873 (David Strauss: the Confessor and the Writer)
  7. Vom Nutzen und Nachtheil der Historie für das Leben, 1874 (On the Use and Abuse of History for Life)
  8. Schopenhauer als Erzieher, 1874 (Schopenhauer as Educator)
  9. Richard Wagner in Bayreuth, 1876
    • Menschliches, Allzumenschliches, 1878 (Human, All-Too-Human
      Human, All Too Human
      Human, All Too Human , subtitled A Book for Free Spirits , is a book by 19th century philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, originally published in 1878...

      )
    • Vermischte Meinungen und Sprüche, 1879 (Mixed Opinions and Maxims)
    • Der Wanderer und sein Schatten, 1879 (The Wanderer and His Shadow
      The Wanderer And His Shadow
      The Wanderer and His Shadow is the second full-length album from Norwegian extreme metal band, Pantheon I and was released in May 2007.The name of the album comes from one of Friedrich Nietzsche's earlier works of the same name.-Track listing:...

      )
    • Morgenröte, 1881 (The Dawn
      The Dawn (book)
      The Dawn is a book written by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche in 1881 ....

      )
    • Die fröhliche Wissenschaft, 1882, 1887 (The Gay Science
      The Gay Science
      The Gay Science is a book written by Friedrich Nietzsche, first published in 1882 and followed by a second edition, which was published after the completion of Thus Spoke Zarathustra and Beyond Good and Evil, in 1887. This substantial expansion includes a fifth book and an appendix of songs...

      )
    • Also sprach Zarathustra, 1883-5 (Thus Spoke Zarathustra
      Thus Spoke Zarathustra
      Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for All and None is a philosophical novel by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, composed in four parts between 1883 and 1885...

      )
    • Jenseits von Gut und Böse, 1886 (Beyond Good and Evil
      Beyond Good and Evil
      Beyond Good and Evil is a book by the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, first published in 1886.It takes up and expands on the ideas of his previous work, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, but approached from a more critical, polemical direction....

      )
    • Zur Genealogie der Moral, 1887 (On the Genealogy of Morality
      On the Genealogy of Morality
      On the Genealogy of Morality, or On the Genealogy of Morals , subtitled "A Polemic" , is a work by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, composed and first published in 1887 with the intention of expanding and following through on certain new doctrines sketched out in his previous work Beyond...

      )
    • Der Fall Wagner, 1888 (The Case of Wagner
      The Case of Wagner
      The Case of Wagner is a German book by the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, originally published in 1888. Subtitled "A Musician's Problem", it has also been known as "The Wagner Case" in English.-Contents:...

      )
    • Götzen-Dämmerung, 1888 (The Twilight of the Idols)
    • Der Antichrist, 1888 (The Antichrist
      The Antichrist (book)
      The Antichrist is a book by the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, originally published in 1895. Although it was written in 1888, its controversial content made Franz Overbeck and Heinrich Köselitz delay its publication, along with Ecce Homo...

      )
    • Ecce Homo
      Ecce Homo (book)
      Ecce Homo: How One Becomes What One Is is the title of the last original book written by philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche before his final years of insanity that spanned until his death in 1900...

      , 1888
    • Nietzsche contra Wagner
      Nietzsche contra Wagner
      "Nietzsche contra Wagner" is a critical essay by Friedrich Nietzsche, composed of recycled passages from his past works, written in his last year of lucidity . It was not published until 1895, six years after Nietzsche's mental collapse. In it Nietzsche describes why he parted ways with his...

      , 1888
    • Der Wille zur Macht, first published 1901 (The Will to Power
      The Will to Power
      The Will to Power is the title given to a book of selectively reordered notes from the literary remains of Friedrich Nietzsche by his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche and Heinrich Köselitz...

      , a posthumous and selective collection of notes arranged by his sister, which are not necessarily representative of Nietzsche)

Major English translations

  • The Birth of Tragedy, 1872
  • in: 'Basic Writings of Nietzsche', trans. Walter Kaufmann, Modern Library, 2000, ISBN 0-679-78339-3
  • in: 'The Birth of Tragedy and Other Writings', trans. Ronald Spiers, Cambridge University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-521-63987-5 (also contains: 'The Dionysiac World View' and 'On Truth and Lying in a Non-Moral Sense')
  • in: 'The Birth of Tragedy and the Case of Wagner', trans. Walter Kaufmann, Vintage, 1967, ISBN 0-394-70369-3
  • in: 'The Birth of Tragedy & the Genealogy of Morals', trans. Francis Golffing, Anchor Books, 1956, ISBN 0-385-09210-5
  • trans. Shaun Whiteside, Penguin Classics, 1994, ISBN 0-14-043339-2
  • The Untimely Meditations, 1873-6
  • trans. R. J. Hollingdale
    R. J. Hollingdale
    Reginald John Hollingdale was best known as a biographer and a translator of German philosophy and literature, especially the works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Goethe, E.T.A. Hoffmann, G. C. Lichtenberg, and Schopenhauer. Hollingdale was also elected president of The Friedrich Nietzsche Society in 1989...

    , Cambridge University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-521-58584-8
  • as: 'Unfashionable Observations', trans. Richard T. Gray, Stanford University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-8047-3403-8
  • Human, All Too Human, 1878
  • trans. R. J. Hollingdale
    R. J. Hollingdale
    Reginald John Hollingdale was best known as a biographer and a translator of German philosophy and literature, especially the works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Goethe, E.T.A. Hoffmann, G. C. Lichtenberg, and Schopenhauer. Hollingdale was also elected president of The Friedrich Nietzsche Society in 1989...

    , Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-56704-1 (also contains: Mixed Opinions and Maxims, 1879 and The Wanderer and His Shadow, 1880)
  • trans. Gary Handwerk, Stanford University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8047-2665-5
  • The Dawn, 1881
  • as: 'Daybreak', trans. R. J. Hollingdale
    R. J. Hollingdale
    Reginald John Hollingdale was best known as a biographer and a translator of German philosophy and literature, especially the works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Goethe, E.T.A. Hoffmann, G. C. Lichtenberg, and Schopenhauer. Hollingdale was also elected president of The Friedrich Nietzsche Society in 1989...

    , Cambridge University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-521-59963-6
  • The Gay Science, 1882, 1887
  • trans. Walter Kaufmann, Vintage, 1974, ISBN 0-394-71985-9
  • ed. Bernard Williams, trans. Josefine Nauckhoff and Adrian Del Caro, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-521-63645-0
  • Thus Spoke Zarathustra, 1883-5
  • trans. R. J. Hollingdale
    R. J. Hollingdale
    Reginald John Hollingdale was best known as a biographer and a translator of German philosophy and literature, especially the works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Goethe, E.T.A. Hoffmann, G. C. Lichtenberg, and Schopenhauer. Hollingdale was also elected president of The Friedrich Nietzsche Society in 1989...

    , Penguin, 1961, ISBN 0-14-044118-2
  • in: 'The Portable Nietzsche', trans. Walter Kaufmann, Penguin, 1977, ISBN 0-14-015062-5
  • trans. Adrian Del Caro, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-521-60261-0
  • trans. Graham Parkes, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-19-280583-5
  • Beyond Good and Evil, 1886
  • in: 'Basic Writings of Nietzsche', trans. Walter Kaufmann, Modern Library, 2000, ISBN 0-679-78339-3
  • trans. Judith Norman, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-521-77913-8
  • trans. R. J. Hollingdale
    R. J. Hollingdale
    Reginald John Hollingdale was best known as a biographer and a translator of German philosophy and literature, especially the works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Goethe, E.T.A. Hoffmann, G. C. Lichtenberg, and Schopenhauer. Hollingdale was also elected president of The Friedrich Nietzsche Society in 1989...

    , Penguin Classics, 1973, ISBN 0-14-044267-7
  • On the Genealogy of Morals, 1887
  • in: 'Basic Writings of Nietzsche', trans. Walter Kaufmann, Modern Library, 2000, ISBN 0-679-78339-3
  • in: 'On the Genealogy of Morals and Ecce Homo', trans. Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale
    R. J. Hollingdale
    Reginald John Hollingdale was best known as a biographer and a translator of German philosophy and literature, especially the works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Goethe, E.T.A. Hoffmann, G. C. Lichtenberg, and Schopenhauer. Hollingdale was also elected president of The Friedrich Nietzsche Society in 1989...

    , Vintage, 1989, ISBN 0-679-72462-1
  • in: 'The Birth of Tragedy & the Genealogy of Morals', trans. Francis Golffing, Anchor Books, 1956, ISBN 0-385-09210-5
  • as 'On the Genealogy of Morality', trans. Maudemarie Clark and Alan J. Swensen, Hackett Publishing Company, 1998, ISBN 0-87220-283-6
  • in: 'On the Genealogy of Morality and Other Writings', trans. Carol Diethe, Cambridge University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-521-40610-2 (also contains: 'The Greek State', 1872 and 'Homer on Competition', 1872)
  • as 'On the Genealogy of Morals', trans. Douglas Smith, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-19-283617-X (paperback)
  • The Case of Wagner, 1888
  • in: 'Basic Writings of Nietzsche', trans. Walter Kaufmann, Modern Library, 2000, ISBN 0-679-78339-3
  • in: 'The Birth of Tragedy and the Case of Wagner', trans. Walter Kaufmann, Vintage, 1967, ISBN 0-394-70369-3
  • in: 'The Anti-Christ, Ecce Homo, Twilight of the Idols and Other Writings', trans. Judith Norman, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-521-01688-6 (also contains: 'The Case of Wagner', 1888 and 'Nietzsche contra Wagner', 1888)
  • Twilight of the Idols, 1888
  • in: 'The Portable Nietzsche', trans. Walter Kaufmann, Penguin, 1977, ISBN 0-14-015062-5
  • trans. Richard Polt, Hackett Publishing Company, 1997, ISBN 0-87220-354-9
  • in: 'Twilight of the Idols and the Anti-Christ', trans. R. J. Hollingdale
    R. J. Hollingdale
    Reginald John Hollingdale was best known as a biographer and a translator of German philosophy and literature, especially the works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Goethe, E.T.A. Hoffmann, G. C. Lichtenberg, and Schopenhauer. Hollingdale was also elected president of The Friedrich Nietzsche Society in 1989...

    , Penguin Classics, 1990, ISBN 0-14-044514-5
  • in: 'The Anti-Christ, Ecce Homo, Twilight of the Idols and Other Writings', trans. Judith Norman, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-521-01688-6 (also contains: 'The Case of Wagner', 1888 and 'Nietzsche contra Wagner', 1888)
  • trans. Duncan Large, Oxford World's Classics, Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-19-283138-0
  • The Antichrist, 1888
  • in: 'Twilight of the Idols and the Anti-Christ', trans. R. J. Hollingdale
    R. J. Hollingdale
    Reginald John Hollingdale was best known as a biographer and a translator of German philosophy and literature, especially the works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Goethe, E.T.A. Hoffmann, G. C. Lichtenberg, and Schopenhauer. Hollingdale was also elected president of The Friedrich Nietzsche Society in 1989...

    , Penguin Classics, 1990, ISBN 0-14-044514-5
  • in: 'The Portable Nietzsche', trans. Walter Kaufmann, Penguin, 1977, ISBN 0-14-015062-5
  • in: 'The Anti-Christ, Ecce Homo, Twilight of the Idols and Other Writings', trans. Judith Norman, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-521-01688-6 (also contains: 'The Case of Wagner', 1888 and 'Nietzsche contra Wagner', 1888)
  • as 'The Anti-Christ', trans. H. L. Mencken
    H. L. Mencken
    Henry Louis "H. L." Mencken was an American journalist, essayist, magazine editor, satirist, acerbic critic of American life and culture, and a scholar of American English. Known as the "Sage of Baltimore", he is regarded as one of the most influential American writers and prose stylists of the...

    , See Sharp Press, 1999, ISBN 1-884365-20-5
  • trans. Anthony M. Ludovici, Prometheus Books, 2000, ISBN 1-57392-832-1
  • Ecce Homo, 1888
  • in: 'Basic Writings of Nietzsche', trans. Walter Kaufmann, Modern Library, 2000, ISBN 0-679-78339-3
  • in: 'The Anti-Christ, Ecce Homo, Twilight of the Idols and Other Writings', trans. Judith Norman, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-521-01688-6 (also contains: 'The Case of Wagner', 1888 and 'Nietzsche contra Wagner', 1888)
  • trans. R. J. Hollingdale
    R. J. Hollingdale
    Reginald John Hollingdale was best known as a biographer and a translator of German philosophy and literature, especially the works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Goethe, E.T.A. Hoffmann, G. C. Lichtenberg, and Schopenhauer. Hollingdale was also elected president of The Friedrich Nietzsche Society in 1989...

    , Penguin Books, 1993, ISBN 0-14-044515-3
  • trans. Duncan Large, Oxford World's Classics, Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 019283228X
  • Nietzsche contra Wagner, 1888
  • in: 'The Portable Nietzsche', trans. Walter Kaufmann, Penguin, 1977, ISBN 0-14-015062-5
  • in: 'The Anti-Christ, Ecce Homo, Twilight of the Idols and Other Writings', trans. Judith Norman, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-521-01688-6 (also contains: 'The Case of Wagner', 1888 and 'Nietzsche contra Wagner', 1888)
  • The Will to Power and Other Posthumous Collections
  • ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann, Vintage, 1968, ISBN 0-394-70437-1
  • 'Writings from the Late Notebooks', ed. Rüdiger Bittner, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-521-00887-5
  • 'Philosophy and Truth: Selections from Nietzsche's Notebooks of the Early 1870s', ed. and trans. Daniel Breazeale, Prometheus Books, 1990, ISBN 1-57392-532-2
  • Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, trans. Marianne Cowan, Regnery Publishing, 1996, ISBN 0-89526-710-1
  • The Pre-Platonic Philosophers, trans. Greg Whitlock, University of Illinois Press, 2001, ISBN 0-252-02559-8

Philology

  • De fontibus Laertii Diogenii
  • Über die alten hexametrischen Nomen
  • Über die Apophthegmata und ihre Sammler
  • Über die literarhistorischen Quellen des Suidas
  • Über die Quellen der Lexikographen

Poetry

  • Idyllen aus Messina
  • Dionysos-Dithyramben, written 1888, published 1892 (Dionysian-Dithyrambs)

Music

This is not a complete list. A title not dated was composed during the same year as the title preceding it. Further information for many of the works listed below may be found at this site annotated within the time of their composition and this site (both depict Nietzsche's musical thought and development). Most pieces available for listening are excerpts.
  • Allegretto, for piano
    Piano
    The piano is a musical instrument played by means of a keyboard. It is one of the most popular instruments in the world. Widely used in classical and jazz music for solo performances, ensemble use, chamber music and accompaniment, the piano is also very popular as an aid to composing and rehearsal...

    , before 1858, listen
  • Hoch tut euch auf, chorus
    Choir
    A choir, chorale or chorus is a musical ensemble of singers. Choral music, in turn, is the music written specifically for such an ensemble to perform.A body of singers who perform together as a group is called a choir or chorus...

    , December 1858
  • Einleitung (trans: Introduction), piano duet
  • Phantasie, piano duet, December 1859
  • Miserere, chorus for 5 voices, summer 1860
  • Einleitung (or: Entwürfe zu einem Weihnachtsoratorium), oratorio
    Oratorio
    An oratorio is a large musical composition including an orchestra, a choir, and soloists. Like an opera, an oratorio includes the use of a choir, soloists, an ensemble, various distinguishable characters, and arias...

     on piano, December 1861
  • Huter, ist die Nacht bald hin?, chorus (in fragments)
  • Presto, piano duet
  • Overture for Strings (?)
  • Aus der Tiefe rufe ich (?)
  • String Quartet Piece (?)
  • Schmerz ist der Grundton der Natur (?)
  • Einleitung, orchestra
    Orchestra
    An orchestra is a sizable instrumental ensemble that contains sections of string, brass, woodwind, and percussion instruments. The term orchestra derives from the Greek ορχήστρα, the name for the area in front of an ancient Greek stage reserved for the Greek chorus...

    l overture
    Overture
    Overture in music is the term originally applied to the instrumental introduction to an opera...

     for piano
  • Mein Platz vor der Tur, NWV 1, solo
    Solo (music)
    In music, a solo is a piece or a section of a piece played or sung by a single performer...

     voice
    Human voice
    The human voice consists of sound made by a human being using the vocal folds for talking, singing, laughing, crying, screaming, etc. Its frequency ranges from about 60 to 7000 Hz. The human voice is specifically that part of human sound production in which the vocal folds are the primary...

     and piano, autumn 1861, listen
  • Heldenklage, piano, 1862
  • Klavierstuck, piano
  • Ungarischer Marsch, piano
  • Zigeunertanz, piano
  • Edes titok (or: Still und ergeben), piano
  • Aus der Jugendzeit, NWV 8, solo voice and piano, summer 1862, listen
  • So lach doch mal, piano, August 1862
  • Da geht ein Bach, NWV 10b, listen
  • Im Mondschein auf der Puszta, piano, September 1862
  • Ermanarich, piano, September 1862
  • Mazurka, piano, November 1862
  • Aus der Czarda, piano, November 1862, listen
  • Das zerbrochene Ringlein, NWV 14, May 1863, listen
  • Albumblatt, piano, August 1863
  • Wie sich Rebenranken schwingen, NWV 16, summer 1863, voice and piano, listen
  • Nachlang einer Sylvestenacht, duet for violin
    Violin
    The violin is a string instrument, usually with four strings tuned in perfect fifths. It is the smallest, highest-pitched member of the violin family of string instruments, which includes the viola and cello....

     and piano, January 2 1864, listen
  • Beschwörung, NWV 20, listen
  • Nachspiel, NWV 21, listen
  • Ständchen, NWV 22
  • Unendlich, NWV 23, listen
  • Verwelkt, NWV 24, listen
  • Ungewitter, NWV 25, 1864, listen
  • Gern und gerner, NWV 26, listen
  • Das Kind an die erloschene Kerze, NWV 27, listen
  • Es winkt und neigt sich, NWV 28, listen
  • Die junge Fischerin, NWV 29, voice and piano, June 1865, listen
  • O weint um sie, choir and piano, December 1865
  • Herbstlich sonnige Tage, piano and 4 voices, April 1867
  • Adel Ich muss nun gehen, 4 voices, August 1870
  • Das "Fragment an sich", piano, October 1871
  • Kirchengeschichtliches Responsorium, chorus and piano, November 1871
  • Manfred-Meditation, 1872, final ver. 1877, listen
  • Monodie à deux (or: Lob der Barmherzigkeit), piano, February 1873
  • Hymnus an die Freundschaft (trans: Hymn to Friendship; also: Festzug der Freunde zum Tempel der Freundschaft, trans: Festival of Friends at the Temple of Friendship), piano, December 29 1874, listen
  • Gebet an das Leben (trans: Prayer to Life), NWV 41, solo voice and piano, 1882, text by Lou Andreas-Salome
    Lou Andreas-Salomé
    Lou Andreas-Salomé was a Russian-born psychoanalyst and author. Her diverse intellectual interests led to friendships with a broad array of distinguished western luminaries, including Nietzsche, Wagner, Freud, and Rilke.- Early years :Lou Salomé was born in St...

    , listen
  • Hymnus an das Leben
    Hymnus an das Leben
    The Hymn to Life is a musical composition for mixed chorus and orchestra by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche.Oft-regarded to be idiosyncratic for a philosopher, Nietzsche accorded to his music that it played a role in the understanding of his philosophical thought. In particular, this was...

    (trans: Hymn to Life), chorus and orchestra, summer 1887

Apocrypha

  • My Sister and I, allegedly translated by Oscar Levy
    Oscar Levy
    Oscar Levy was a German-Jewish physician and writer, now known as a scholar of Friedrich Nietzsche, whose works he first saw translated systematically into English. His was a paradoxical life, of self-exile and exile, and of writing on and against Judaism. He was influenced by the racialist...

    , considered by Walter Kaufmann and Denis Dutton
    Denis Dutton
    Denis Dutton was an academic, web entrepreneur and libertarian media commentator/activist. He was a professor of philosophy at the University of Canterbury in Christchurch, New Zealand...

     to be a forgery.

Other

Thoughts out of Season, Part 1 is edited by Oscar Levy and translated by Anthony M. Ludovici. It was published in 1909 by T. N. Foulis 13 & 15 Frederick St., Edinburgh and London. It is available on the WWW at Thoughts Out of Season Part One. It contains David Strauss, the Confessor and the Writer and Richard Wagner in Bayreuth.


C.G. Jung cites this as his first introduction to Nietszche in his autobiography Memories, Dreams, Reflections
Memories, Dreams, Reflections
Memories, Dreams, Reflections is a partially autobiographical book by Swiss psychologist Carl Jung and associate Aniela Jaffé...

page 102 ISBN 0-679-72395-1, and claims to have been 'carried away by its enthusiasm'.

See also

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.  The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.
 
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