Kurdish rebellions
Encyclopedia
According to Turkish military records, Kurdish rebellions have been taking place in Anatolia
for over two centuries.
in the overwhelmingly Kizilbash
Dersim region, while waged by the Kizilbash Koçkiri tribe, was masterminded by members of an organisation known as the Kürdistan Taâlî Cemiyeti (KTC). This particular rebellion failed for several reasons, most of which have something to do with its Kizilbash character. The fact was that many Dersim tribal chiefs at this point still supported the Kemal
ists - regarding Mustafa Kemal
as their 'protector' against the excesses of Sunni religious zealots, some of whom were Kurmancî Kurds
. To most Kurmancî Kurds at the time, the uprising appeared to be merely an Alevi
uprising - and thus not in their own interests.
In the aftermath of the Koçkiri rebellion there was talk in the new Turkish Republic's Grand National Assembly of some very limited forms of 'Autonomous Administration' by the Kurds in a Kurdish region centered in Kurdistan. All this disappeared in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne
, however. Bitterly disappointed, the Kurds turned again to armed struggle in 1925 - this time led by the Zaza
cleric Sheikh Said
, but organized by another, newer, Kurdish nationalist organization, Azadî
.
. The repression and aggression of Kemalist secularism followed and all public manifestations of Kurdish identity was outlawed which, in turn, prepared Kurds for more rebellion. The revolt of Sheikh Said
began in February 1925 .Of almost 15000 fighters who participated in the rebellion against the 52,000 Turkish Gendarmerie
, the main Kurdish tribes participating in the rebellion came from Zaza
. The rebellion covered most of the part of Amed (Diyarbakir
) and Marden
. The Sheikh Said rebellion was the first large scale rebellion of the Kurdish national movement in Turkey. The main organizer of this rebellion was the Kurdish Independent Society, Azadi. Azadi’s intention was to liberate Kurds from Turkish oppression and thus deliver freedom and further, develop their country. By March 1925 the revolt was pretty much over. Sheikh Said and all the other rebel leaders were hanged by June 29.
In Fall of 1927 Sheikh Abdurrahman (brother of Sheikh Said) began a series of attacks on Turkish garrisons in Palu
and Malatya
. Districts of Lice, Bingöl
were captured by the rebels. They also occupied the heights south of Erzurum
. Turkish military used air force against the rebels using five airplanes in Mardin
. In October 1927, Kurdish rebels attacked and occupied Bayazid. The brother of Sheikh Said tried to exact revenge on the Turkish government by attacking several army bases in Kurdistan. Nothing permanent was accomplished. They were driven out after Turkish reinforcements arrived in the area.
The rebellion failed, however, by 1929, Ihsan Nuri’s movement was in control of a large expanse of Kurdish territory and the revolt was put down by the year 1930.
was a self-proclaimed Kurdish
state. It was located in the east of modern Turkey
, being centered on Ağrı Province. The Republic of Ararat
was declared independent in 1927, during a wave of rebellion among Kurds in south-eastern Turkey. The rebellion was led by General İhsan Nuri Pasha
. However it was not recognized by other states, and lacked foreign support.
By the end of summer 1930, the Turkish Air Force
was bombing Kurdish positions around Mt. Ararat from all directions. According to General Ihsan Nuri Pasha, the military superiority of Turkish Air Force demoralized Kurds and led to their capitulation. On July 13, the rebellion in Zilan was suppressed. Squadrons
of 10-15 aircraft were used in crushing the revolt. On July 16, two Turkish planes were downed and their pilots were killed by the Kurds. Aerial bombardment continued for several days and forced Kurds to withdraw to the height of 5,000 meters. By July 21, bombardment had destroyed many Kurdish forts. During these operations, Turkish military mobilized 66,000 soldiers and 100 aircraft. The campaign against the Kurds was over by September 17, 1930. The Ararat rebellion was defeated in 1931, and Turkey resumed control over the territory.
of Kizilbash
elites who was chief of the Abbasuşağı tribe against Turkey
led by Kemal Atatürk. Turkey managed to suppress the rebellion mobilizing 50,000 troops and effectively using the Turkish Air Force
.
. In addition to destruction of villages and massive deportations, Turkish Government encouraged Kosovar Albanians and Assyrians
to settle in the Kurdish area to change the ethnic composition of the region. The measures taken by the Turkish Army in the immediate aftermath of the revolt became more repressive than previous uprisings. People were put in barns and caves and burned alive. Forests were surrounded and set alight to exterminate those who had taken refuge there. Many Kurdish females committed collective suicide and threw themselves into rivers. According to the Turkish Communist Party, between 1925 to 1938, more than 1.5 million Kurds were deported and massacred. In order to prevent the events from having a negative impact on Turkey's International image and reputation, foreigners were not allowed to visit the entire area east of Euphrates
until 1965 and the area remained under permanent military siege till 1950. The Kurdish language was banned and the words "Kurds" and "Kurdistan" were removed from dictionaries and history books and Kurds were only referred to as "Mountain Turks".
oppression and establishment of an independent, united, socialist Kurdish state. It initially attracted the poorer segments of the Kurdish population and became the only Kurdish party not dominated by tribal links. PKK's chairman, Abdullah Öcalan
, was proud of being from humble origins. It characterized its struggle mainly as an anti-colonial one, hence directing its violence against collaborators, i.e. Kurdish tribal chieftains, notables with a stake in the Turkish state, and also against rival organizations. The military coup in 1980 lead to a period of severe repression and elimination of almost all Kurdish and leftist organizations. The PKK, however, was the only Kurdish party that managed to survive and even grow in size after the coup. It initiated a guerrilla offensive with a series of attacks on Turkish military and police stations and due to its daring challenging of the Turkish army, gradually won over grudging admiration of parts of the Kurdish population. In the beginning of 1990, it had set up its own local administration in some rural areas. Around this time, PKK changed its goals from full Kurdish independence to a negotiated settlement with the Turkish government, specially after some promising indirect contacts with President Turgut Özal
. After Özal's sudden death, the Turkish military intensified its operations against PKK bases. These measures succeeded in isolating the PKK from the civilians and reduced it to a guerrilla band operating in the mountains. In 1999, increased Turkish pressure on Syria
led to Öcalan's expulsion and ultimate arrest by Turkish Maroon Berets
in Kenya
.
During the 1980s Turkey began a program of forced assimilation of its Kurdish population. This culminated in 1984 when the PKK began a rebellion against Turkish rule attacking Turkish military and civilian targets. Since the PKK's militant operations began in 1984, 37,000 people have been killed. The PKK has been continuing its guerrilla warfare in the mountains. However since 1995, and especially since the AK Party came to power there have been numerous reforms and the situation has greatly improved. As a result the fighting is limited to approximately 3000 fighters.
Anatolia
Anatolia is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey...
for over two centuries.
Koçkiri rebellion, 1920
The 1920 Koçkiri RebellionKoçkiri Rebellion
The Koçgiri Rebellion or Koçkiri Rebellion was a Alevi uprising in 1920 during the Turkish War of Independence, in the overwhelmingly militant Dersim region...
in the overwhelmingly Kizilbash
Kizilbash
Qizilbash or Kizilbash is the label given to a wide variety of Shī‘ī Islamic militant groups that flourished in Anatolia and Kurdistan from the late 13th century onwards, some of which contributed to the foundation of the Safavid dynasty of...
Dersim region, while waged by the Kizilbash Koçkiri tribe, was masterminded by members of an organisation known as the Kürdistan Taâlî Cemiyeti (KTC). This particular rebellion failed for several reasons, most of which have something to do with its Kizilbash character. The fact was that many Dersim tribal chiefs at this point still supported the Kemal
Kemal
Kemal may refer to:People* Kemal , a common Turkish name** Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Republic of Turkey** Yaşar Kemal, Turkish writerPlaces* Kemalpaşa, Izmir Province, Turkey* Mustafakemalpaşa, Bursa Province, TurkeySee also...
ists - regarding Mustafa Kemal
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey. He is credited with being the founder of the Republic of Turkey....
as their 'protector' against the excesses of Sunni religious zealots, some of whom were Kurmancî Kurds
Kurdish people
The Kurdish people, or Kurds , are an Iranian people native to the Middle East, mostly inhabiting a region known as Kurdistan, which includes adjacent parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey...
. To most Kurmancî Kurds at the time, the uprising appeared to be merely an Alevi
Alevi
The Alevi are a religious and cultural community, primarily in Turkey, constituting probably more than 15 million people....
uprising - and thus not in their own interests.
In the aftermath of the Koçkiri rebellion there was talk in the new Turkish Republic's Grand National Assembly of some very limited forms of 'Autonomous Administration' by the Kurds in a Kurdish region centered in Kurdistan. All this disappeared in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne
Treaty of Lausanne
The Treaty of Lausanne was a peace treaty signed in Lausanne, Switzerland on 24 July 1923, that settled the Anatolian and East Thracian parts of the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. The treaty of Lausanne was ratified by the Greek government on 11 February 1924, by the Turkish government on 31...
, however. Bitterly disappointed, the Kurds turned again to armed struggle in 1925 - this time led by the Zaza
Zaza
Zaza may refer to:* The Zaza people, an ethnic group in eastern Anatolia * The Zazaki language, spoken by the Zaza, also called Dimili, Dımılki, Dimli, Kirmancki-People:* Karim Zaza, a Moroccan goalkeeper* Neil Zaza, a guitar player...
cleric Sheikh Said
Sheikh Said
Sheikh Said, also spelled Shaikh and/or Sa'id, Sa'īd, Saïd, Saeed may refer to:-People:*Mustafa Abu al-Yazid, al-Qaeda commander in Afghanistan*Sa'id ibn Zayd, companion of Muhammad...
, but organized by another, newer, Kurdish nationalist organization, Azadî
Azadi
Āzādī is a Persian word, meaning freedom and liberty. It is also used in other Iranian languages and is also borrowed by other languages such as Hindi, Urdu.-Locations:...
.
Sheikh Said Rebellion, 1925
The main rebellion which dominates the history of the Kurds in Turkey is that of the 1925 rebellion in Kurdistan region of Turkey which was led by Sheikh SaidSheikh Said
Sheikh Said, also spelled Shaikh and/or Sa'id, Sa'īd, Saïd, Saeed may refer to:-People:*Mustafa Abu al-Yazid, al-Qaeda commander in Afghanistan*Sa'id ibn Zayd, companion of Muhammad...
. The repression and aggression of Kemalist secularism followed and all public manifestations of Kurdish identity was outlawed which, in turn, prepared Kurds for more rebellion. The revolt of Sheikh Said
Sheikh Said
Sheikh Said, also spelled Shaikh and/or Sa'id, Sa'īd, Saïd, Saeed may refer to:-People:*Mustafa Abu al-Yazid, al-Qaeda commander in Afghanistan*Sa'id ibn Zayd, companion of Muhammad...
began in February 1925 .Of almost 15000 fighters who participated in the rebellion against the 52,000 Turkish Gendarmerie
Turkish Gendarmerie
The Turkish Gendarmerie is a branch of the Turkish Armed Forces and it is responsible for the maintenance of the public order in areas that fall outside the jurisdiction of police forces , as well as assuring internal security and general border control along with carrying out other specific...
, the main Kurdish tribes participating in the rebellion came from Zaza
Zaza
Zaza may refer to:* The Zaza people, an ethnic group in eastern Anatolia * The Zazaki language, spoken by the Zaza, also called Dimili, Dımılki, Dimli, Kirmancki-People:* Karim Zaza, a Moroccan goalkeeper* Neil Zaza, a guitar player...
. The rebellion covered most of the part of Amed (Diyarbakir
Diyarbakir
Diyarbakır is one of the largest cities in southeastern Turkey...
) and Marden
Marden
The name Marden may referto one of the following places in England* Marden, Herefordshire* Marden, Kent** Marden Airfield* Marden, Tyne and Wear* Marden, West Sussex* Marden, Wiltshire** River Mardento the following place in Australia...
. The Sheikh Said rebellion was the first large scale rebellion of the Kurdish national movement in Turkey. The main organizer of this rebellion was the Kurdish Independent Society, Azadi. Azadi’s intention was to liberate Kurds from Turkish oppression and thus deliver freedom and further, develop their country. By March 1925 the revolt was pretty much over. Sheikh Said and all the other rebel leaders were hanged by June 29.
In Fall of 1927 Sheikh Abdurrahman (brother of Sheikh Said) began a series of attacks on Turkish garrisons in Palu
Palu
Palu is a chartered city on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, located 1,650 km northeast of Jakarta, at . It is the capital of the province of Central Sulawesi. The city sits on the mouth of Palu River, at the head of a long, narrow bay. Because of its sheltered position between mountain...
and Malatya
Malatya
Malatya ) is a city in southeastern Turkey and the capital of its eponymous province.-Overview:The city site has been occupied for thousands of years. The Assyrians called the city Meliddu. Following Roman expansion into the east, the city was renamed in Latin as Melitene...
. Districts of Lice, Bingöl
Bingöl
Bingöl is a city in Eastern Turkey. It is also known as Çabakcur , which means violent water in Armenian. It is surrounded by mountains and a large number of glacier lakes, hence the name . Lately, the town has become a popular tourist destination...
were captured by the rebels. They also occupied the heights south of Erzurum
Erzurum
Erzurum is a city in Turkey. It is the largest city, the capital of Erzurum Province. The city is situated 1757 meters above sea level. Erzurum had a population of 361,235 in the 2000 census. .Erzurum, known as "The Rock" in NATO code, served as NATO's southeastern-most air force post during the...
. Turkish military used air force against the rebels using five airplanes in Mardin
Mardin
Mardin is a city in southeastern Turkey. The capital of Mardin Province, it is known for its Arabic-like architecture, and for its strategic location on a rocky mountain overlooking the plains of northern Syria.-History:...
. In October 1927, Kurdish rebels attacked and occupied Bayazid. The brother of Sheikh Said tried to exact revenge on the Turkish government by attacking several army bases in Kurdistan. Nothing permanent was accomplished. They were driven out after Turkish reinforcements arrived in the area.
The rebellion failed, however, by 1929, Ihsan Nuri’s movement was in control of a large expanse of Kurdish territory and the revolt was put down by the year 1930.
Ararat rebellion, 1927-1930
The Republic of AraratRepublic of Ararat
The Republic of Ararat or Kurdish Republic of Ararat was a self-proclaimed Kurdish state. It was located in the northeasten part of modern Turkey, being centered on Karaköse Province...
was a self-proclaimed Kurdish
Turkish Kurdistan
Turkish Kurdistan is an unofficial name for the southeastern part of Turkey, which is inhabited predominantly by ethnic Kurds. The area covers between 190,000 to 230,000 km² , or nearly a third of Turkey...
state. It was located in the east of modern Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
, being centered on Ağrı Province. The Republic of Ararat
Republic of Ararat
The Republic of Ararat or Kurdish Republic of Ararat was a self-proclaimed Kurdish state. It was located in the northeasten part of modern Turkey, being centered on Karaköse Province...
was declared independent in 1927, during a wave of rebellion among Kurds in south-eastern Turkey. The rebellion was led by General İhsan Nuri Pasha
Ihsan Nuri Pasha
Ihsan Nuri, also known as Ihsan Nuri Pasha was a Kurdish soldier and politician. Former officer of the Ottoman and Turkish Army. One of leaders of the Ararat rebellion as the generalissimo of the Kurdish National Forces.-Early life:Ihsan Nuri was born in the house of his father Elî Qulî in Bitlis...
. However it was not recognized by other states, and lacked foreign support.
By the end of summer 1930, the Turkish Air Force
Turkish Air Force
The Turkish Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the Turkish Armed Forces. It ranks 3rd in NATO in terms of fleet size behind the USAF and Royal Air Force with a current inventory of 798 aircraft .-Initial stages:...
was bombing Kurdish positions around Mt. Ararat from all directions. According to General Ihsan Nuri Pasha, the military superiority of Turkish Air Force demoralized Kurds and led to their capitulation. On July 13, the rebellion in Zilan was suppressed. Squadrons
Squadron (aviation)
A squadron in air force, army aviation or naval aviation is mainly a unit comprising a number of military aircraft, usually of the same type, typically with 12 to 24 aircraft, sometimes divided into three or four flights, depending on aircraft type and air force...
of 10-15 aircraft were used in crushing the revolt. On July 16, two Turkish planes were downed and their pilots were killed by the Kurds. Aerial bombardment continued for several days and forced Kurds to withdraw to the height of 5,000 meters. By July 21, bombardment had destroyed many Kurdish forts. During these operations, Turkish military mobilized 66,000 soldiers and 100 aircraft. The campaign against the Kurds was over by September 17, 1930. The Ararat rebellion was defeated in 1931, and Turkey resumed control over the territory.
Dersim rebellion, 1937
Dersim Rebellion is the unsuccessful rebellion of Seyid RizaSeyid Riza
Seyid Rıza , was born in 1863 in Lirtik, a village in Dersim...
of Kizilbash
Kizilbash
Qizilbash or Kizilbash is the label given to a wide variety of Shī‘ī Islamic militant groups that flourished in Anatolia and Kurdistan from the late 13th century onwards, some of which contributed to the foundation of the Safavid dynasty of...
elites who was chief of the Abbasuşağı tribe against Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
led by Kemal Atatürk. Turkey managed to suppress the rebellion mobilizing 50,000 troops and effectively using the Turkish Air Force
Turkish Air Force
The Turkish Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the Turkish Armed Forces. It ranks 3rd in NATO in terms of fleet size behind the USAF and Royal Air Force with a current inventory of 798 aircraft .-Initial stages:...
.
Government Measures After 1937
After suppression of the last rebellion in 1937, Southeast Anatolia was put under martial lawMartial law
Martial law is the imposition of military rule by military authorities over designated regions on an emergency basis— only temporary—when the civilian government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively , when there are extensive riots and protests, or when the disobedience of the law...
. In addition to destruction of villages and massive deportations, Turkish Government encouraged Kosovar Albanians and Assyrians
Assyrian people
The Assyrian people are a distinct ethnic group whose origins lie in ancient Mesopotamia...
to settle in the Kurdish area to change the ethnic composition of the region. The measures taken by the Turkish Army in the immediate aftermath of the revolt became more repressive than previous uprisings. People were put in barns and caves and burned alive. Forests were surrounded and set alight to exterminate those who had taken refuge there. Many Kurdish females committed collective suicide and threw themselves into rivers. According to the Turkish Communist Party, between 1925 to 1938, more than 1.5 million Kurds were deported and massacred. In order to prevent the events from having a negative impact on Turkey's International image and reputation, foreigners were not allowed to visit the entire area east of Euphrates
Euphrates
The Euphrates is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia...
until 1965 and the area remained under permanent military siege till 1950. The Kurdish language was banned and the words "Kurds" and "Kurdistan" were removed from dictionaries and history books and Kurds were only referred to as "Mountain Turks".
Turkish-Kurdish uprising, 1970s-current
Kurdish nationalism began resurgence in the 1970s when Turkey was racked with left-right clashes and the Marxist PKK was formed demanding a Kurdish state. PKK declared its objective as the liberation of all parts of Kurdistan from colonialColonialism
Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. It is a process whereby the metropole claims sovereignty over the colony and the social structure, government, and economics of the colony are changed by...
oppression and establishment of an independent, united, socialist Kurdish state. It initially attracted the poorer segments of the Kurdish population and became the only Kurdish party not dominated by tribal links. PKK's chairman, Abdullah Öcalan
Abdullah Öcalan
Abdullah Öcalan , Kurdish founder of the terrorist organization called Kurdistan Workers' Party in 1978.Öcalan was captured in Nairobi and extradited to the Turkish security force, and sentenced to death under Article 125 of the Turkish Penal Code, which concerns the formation of armed gangs...
, was proud of being from humble origins. It characterized its struggle mainly as an anti-colonial one, hence directing its violence against collaborators, i.e. Kurdish tribal chieftains, notables with a stake in the Turkish state, and also against rival organizations. The military coup in 1980 lead to a period of severe repression and elimination of almost all Kurdish and leftist organizations. The PKK, however, was the only Kurdish party that managed to survive and even grow in size after the coup. It initiated a guerrilla offensive with a series of attacks on Turkish military and police stations and due to its daring challenging of the Turkish army, gradually won over grudging admiration of parts of the Kurdish population. In the beginning of 1990, it had set up its own local administration in some rural areas. Around this time, PKK changed its goals from full Kurdish independence to a negotiated settlement with the Turkish government, specially after some promising indirect contacts with President Turgut Özal
Turgut Özal
Halil Turgut Özal was Prime Minister of Turkey and President of Turkey . As Prime Minister, he transformed the economy of Turkey by paving the way for the privatization of many state enterprises.-Early life and career:...
. After Özal's sudden death, the Turkish military intensified its operations against PKK bases. These measures succeeded in isolating the PKK from the civilians and reduced it to a guerrilla band operating in the mountains. In 1999, increased Turkish pressure on Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
led to Öcalan's expulsion and ultimate arrest by Turkish Maroon Berets
Maroon Berets
Special Forces Command also known as the Maroon Berets because of their distinctive service headgear, are a special operations force of the Turkish Armed Forces....
in Kenya
Kenya
Kenya , officially known as the Republic of Kenya, is a country in East Africa that lies on the equator, with the Indian Ocean to its south-east...
.
During the 1980s Turkey began a program of forced assimilation of its Kurdish population. This culminated in 1984 when the PKK began a rebellion against Turkish rule attacking Turkish military and civilian targets. Since the PKK's militant operations began in 1984, 37,000 people have been killed. The PKK has been continuing its guerrilla warfare in the mountains. However since 1995, and especially since the AK Party came to power there have been numerous reforms and the situation has greatly improved. As a result the fighting is limited to approximately 3000 fighters.
See also
- RAF Iraq CommandRAF Iraq CommandIraq Command was the RAF commanded inter-service command in charge of British forces in Iraq in the 1920s and early 1930s, during the period of the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. It continued as British Forces in Iraq until 1941 when it was replaced by AHQ Iraq...
- Timeline of Kurdish uprisingsTimeline of Kurdish uprisings-Pre 19th century:* 1506-1510 - The Yazidis uprising against the Safavids .* 1609 - Battle of Dimdim - Amir Khan Lepzerin , against Safavid Empire.* 1775 - Bajalan uprising against the Zand Dynasty .-19th century:...
- List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
- List of conflicts in the Middle East