John Nixon (general)
Encyclopedia
Lieutenant-General Sir John E. Nixon (1857–1921) was senior commander of the British Indian Army
. He gave the orders for the ultimately disastrous first British Expedition against Baghdad during World War I
.
Educated at Rossall School
and then the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. He then joined the British Army in India and moved up the ranks steadily. By 1914, he was the commander of the Southern Army in India, in overall command of 4 divisions and two units deployed outside of India (the 4th (Quetta) Division
, the 5th (Mhow) Division
, the 6th (Poona) Division
, the 9th (Secunderabad) Division
, the Burma Division
, and the Aden Brigade
).
joined the war at the start of November 1914, the British Army in India
figured they could contribute to the war effort by taking Basra
. They had already sent troops to control the oil field at Abadan
so the move to Basra made sense. Ottoman resistance was weak and the area around Basra was rapidly taken.
Nixon was sent to take control of the area early in 1915 and he chose to embark on an aggressive plan to take as much of Mesopotamia as he could. The British Army in India for nearly a century had operated with little or no direction from London. Following in this tradition, Nixon's aggressive stance in Mesopotamia was not submitted for approval from London. It was approved in New Delhi and that was enough.
The advance into Mesopotamia met with initial success. The Ottoman forces, under the overall command of Khalil Pasha in Baghdad
and more locally under Nur-Ud Din Pasha were not very well equipped and not well supplied. As far as the Ottoman leader Enver Pasha was concerned, Mesopotamia was the least important campaign in the theatre
, so the Caucasus
, the Sinai
, and the Dardanelles campaigns had priority when men and materiel
were being allocated.
From January 1915 until November, the British advanced up the Tigris
and Euphrates
rivers. The furthest advance was by General Townshend's
6th Poona division which captured Kut
on September 26, 1915. At this point, Townshend's forces were just about halfway between Basra and Baghdad and he wanted to halt. But Nixon ordered a continuation of the expedition and so the 6th Poona division headed up river. By this time the Ottoman Army had brought a retired military expert into command - Baron von der Goltz
- and sent additional troops to defend Baghdad.
General Nixon was sufficiently confident to embark with his headquarters company and proceed upriver, hoping to be in Baghdad by Christmas. However, in late November, when news reached him that Townshend's forces had fought an inconclusive battle at Ctesiphon
and, too weak to continue, were retreating back to Kut, he turned back. His paddle steamer then came under attack from both sides of the river and ran aground. A sitting target, casualties mounted until the Commander in Chief of Mesopotamia ran up a white flag and invited his attackers to parley. They turned out to be Arabs who had changed sides as the tide of war had turned the Turks' way. Nixon had to pay over a huge sum before he was allowed to continue to Basra. Everyone on board the steamer was sworn to secrecy on pain of death.
Baron von der Goltz
with his Ottoman army reached Kut a week behind the British. At this point, Townshend asked for permission to withdraw from Kut and, in another mistake, General Nixon refused. While Townshend's cavalry and some Royal Flying Corps
assets were sent down the river, the vast majority of the 6th Poona division stayed and dug in at Kut.
The issue of supplies for the defenders at Kut became critical. Once withdrawal became impossible, General Townshend reported that he only had enough supplies for a month. In fact, his garrison held out for five months, though at reduced rations. The supply problem caused Nixon to rapidly gather his remaining divisions and launch a hasty effort to break the siege.
The relief force, under the local command of General Aylmer began its efforts in early January, 1916. They forced the Ottomans out of two fortified positions (Sheikh Sa'ad
and Wadi) while suffering significant casualties. However, the Battle of Hanna
was a complete failure. The British troops never even reached the Ottoman defensive positions at a loss of 2,700 casualties.
Nixon had to take the blame for the looming disaster at Kut and the inability of his army to rectify the situation and so he was removed from command (officially it was due to ill-health). He was replaced by General Sir Percy Lake
(who would also fail to rescue the garrison at Kut and also be removed from command for his failure).
In 1917, an official commission reported on the failure at Kut. Nixon was blamed in the document for failure to provide adequate medical services for the troops. This ended Nixon's military career and he died just four years later.
British Indian Army
The British Indian Army, officially simply the Indian Army, was the principal army of the British Raj in India before the partition of India in 1947...
. He gave the orders for the ultimately disastrous first British Expedition against Baghdad during World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
.
Educated at Rossall School
Rossall School
Rossall School is a British, co-educational, independent school, between Cleveleys and Fleetwood, Lancashire. Rossall was founded in 1844 by St. Vincent Beechey as a sister school to Marlborough College which had been founded the previous year...
and then the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. He then joined the British Army in India and moved up the ranks steadily. By 1914, he was the commander of the Southern Army in India, in overall command of 4 divisions and two units deployed outside of India (the 4th (Quetta) Division
4th (Quetta) Division
The 4th Division was an infantry division of the British Indian Army. It was formed by General Kitchener while he was Commander-in-chief of India. During World War I the division remained in India...
, the 5th (Mhow) Division
5th (Mhow) Division
The 5th Division was a regular division of the British Indian Army and part of the Southern Army which was formed in 1903 after Lord Kitchener was appointed Commander-in-Chief, India between 1902 and 1909...
, the 6th (Poona) Division
6th (Poona) Division
For the World War II formation see 6th Infantry Division The 6th Division was a division of the British Indian Army. It was formed in 1903, following the Kitchener reforms of the Indian Army.-World War I:...
, the 9th (Secunderabad) Division
9th (Secunderabad) Division
The 9th Division was a formation of the British Indian Army. It was part of the Southern Army and was formed in 1904 after Lord Kitchener was appointed Commander-in-Chief, India between 1902 and 1909...
, the Burma Division
Burma Division
The Burma Division was a static formation of the British Indian Army. It was created as part of the 1903 reforms of the Indian Army by Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener then Commander-in-Chief, India. The task of such formations was to oversee area brigades commanding Internal Security troops...
, and the Aden Brigade
Aden Brigade
The Aden Brigade was a formation of the British Indian Army formed for service in Aden during World War I. It was commanded by Major General Bell and consisted of the:*Aden Cavalry Troop*1st Battalion Royal Irish Rifles*109th Infantry...
).
WWI
Once the Ottoman EmpireOttoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
joined the war at the start of November 1914, the British Army in India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
figured they could contribute to the war effort by taking Basra
Basra
Basra is the capital of Basra Governorate, in southern Iraq near Kuwait and Iran. It had an estimated population of two million as of 2009...
. They had already sent troops to control the oil field at Abadan
Abadan
Abadan is a city in and the capital of Abadan County, Khuzestan Province, Iran. It lies on Abadan Island , from the Persian Gulf, near the Iraqi-Iran border. The civilian population of the city dropped to near zero during the eight-years Iran–Iraq War. In 1992, only 84,774 had returned to live...
so the move to Basra made sense. Ottoman resistance was weak and the area around Basra was rapidly taken.
Nixon was sent to take control of the area early in 1915 and he chose to embark on an aggressive plan to take as much of Mesopotamia as he could. The British Army in India for nearly a century had operated with little or no direction from London. Following in this tradition, Nixon's aggressive stance in Mesopotamia was not submitted for approval from London. It was approved in New Delhi and that was enough.
The advance into Mesopotamia met with initial success. The Ottoman forces, under the overall command of Khalil Pasha in Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
and more locally under Nur-Ud Din Pasha were not very well equipped and not well supplied. As far as the Ottoman leader Enver Pasha was concerned, Mesopotamia was the least important campaign in the theatre
Middle Eastern theatre of World War I
The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I was the scene of action between 29 October 1914, and 30 October 1918. The combatants were the Ottoman Empire, with some assistance from the other Central Powers, and primarily the British and the Russians among the Allies of World War I...
, so the Caucasus
Caucasus Campaign
The Caucasus Campaign comprised armed conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire, later including Azerbaijan, Armenia, Central Caspian Dictatorship and the UK as part of the Middle Eastern theatre or alternatively named as part of the Caucasus Campaign during World War I...
, the Sinai
Sinai and Palestine Campaign
The Sinai and Palestine Campaigns took place in the Middle Eastern Theatre of World War I. A series of battles were fought between British Empire, German Empire and Ottoman Empire forces from 26 January 1915 to 31 October 1918, when the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Ottoman Empire and...
, and the Dardanelles campaigns had priority when men and materiel
Materiel
Materiel is a term used in English to refer to the equipment and supplies in military and commercial supply chain management....
were being allocated.
From January 1915 until November, the British advanced up the Tigris
Tigris
The Tigris River is the eastern member of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of southeastern Turkey through Iraq.-Geography:...
and Euphrates
Euphrates
The Euphrates is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia...
rivers. The furthest advance was by General Townshend's
Charles Vere Ferrers Townshend
Major General Sir Charles Vere Ferrers Townshend KCB, DSO was a British Indian Army officer who led the ultimately disastrous first British Expedition against Baghdad during World War I, and was later elected to Parliament....
6th Poona division which captured Kut
Kut
Al-Kūt is a city in eastern Iraq, on the left bank of the Tigris River, about 160 kilometres south east of Baghdad. the estimated population is about 374,000 people...
on September 26, 1915. At this point, Townshend's forces were just about halfway between Basra and Baghdad and he wanted to halt. But Nixon ordered a continuation of the expedition and so the 6th Poona division headed up river. By this time the Ottoman Army had brought a retired military expert into command - Baron von der Goltz
Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz
Wilhelm Leopold Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz also known as Goltz Pasha, was a Prussian Field Marshal and military writer.-Military career:...
- and sent additional troops to defend Baghdad.
General Nixon was sufficiently confident to embark with his headquarters company and proceed upriver, hoping to be in Baghdad by Christmas. However, in late November, when news reached him that Townshend's forces had fought an inconclusive battle at Ctesiphon
Battle of Ctesiphon (1915)
The Battle of Ctesiphon was fought in November 1915 by the British Empire and British India, against the Ottoman Empire, within the Mesopotamian Campaign of World War I....
and, too weak to continue, were retreating back to Kut, he turned back. His paddle steamer then came under attack from both sides of the river and ran aground. A sitting target, casualties mounted until the Commander in Chief of Mesopotamia ran up a white flag and invited his attackers to parley. They turned out to be Arabs who had changed sides as the tide of war had turned the Turks' way. Nixon had to pay over a huge sum before he was allowed to continue to Basra. Everyone on board the steamer was sworn to secrecy on pain of death.
Baron von der Goltz
Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz
Wilhelm Leopold Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz also known as Goltz Pasha, was a Prussian Field Marshal and military writer.-Military career:...
with his Ottoman army reached Kut a week behind the British. At this point, Townshend asked for permission to withdraw from Kut and, in another mistake, General Nixon refused. While Townshend's cavalry and some Royal Flying Corps
Royal Flying Corps
The Royal Flying Corps was the over-land air arm of the British military during most of the First World War. During the early part of the war, the RFC's responsibilities were centred on support of the British Army, via artillery co-operation and photographic reconnaissance...
assets were sent down the river, the vast majority of the 6th Poona division stayed and dug in at Kut.
The issue of supplies for the defenders at Kut became critical. Once withdrawal became impossible, General Townshend reported that he only had enough supplies for a month. In fact, his garrison held out for five months, though at reduced rations. The supply problem caused Nixon to rapidly gather his remaining divisions and launch a hasty effort to break the siege.
The relief force, under the local command of General Aylmer began its efforts in early January, 1916. They forced the Ottomans out of two fortified positions (Sheikh Sa'ad
Battle of Sheikh Sa'ad
The Battle of Sheikh Sa'ad occurred between 6–8 January 1916 during the Mesopotamian Campaign of the First World War. The battle took place along the banks of the Tigris River between the Anglo-Indian Tigris Corps and elements of the Ottoman Sixth Army...
and Wadi) while suffering significant casualties. However, the Battle of Hanna
Battle of Hanna
The First Battle of Hanna was a World War I battle fought on the Mesopotamian front on 21 January 1916 between Ottoman Army and Anglo-Indian forces.-Prelude:...
was a complete failure. The British troops never even reached the Ottoman defensive positions at a loss of 2,700 casualties.
Nixon had to take the blame for the looming disaster at Kut and the inability of his army to rectify the situation and so he was removed from command (officially it was due to ill-health). He was replaced by General Sir Percy Lake
Percy Lake
General Sir Percy Henry Noel Lake, KCB, KCMG was a senior commander of the British Indian Army, serving during World War I, and a Canadian soldier.- Career :...
(who would also fail to rescue the garrison at Kut and also be removed from command for his failure).
In 1917, an official commission reported on the failure at Kut. Nixon was blamed in the document for failure to provide adequate medical services for the troops. This ended Nixon's military career and he died just four years later.
Further reading
- Britain, India, and the Arabs 1914-1921 by Briton Cooper Busch, University of California Press, 1971.
- The First Iraq War, 1914-1918: Britain's Mesopotamian Campaign by A. J. Barker, Enigma Books, 2009. ISBN 978-1-929631-86-5