John Horse
Encyclopedia
John Horse also known as Juan Caballo, Juan Cavallo, John Cowaya (with spelling variations} and Gopher John, was a Seminole-African American who acted as a military adviser to the chief Osceola
and a leader of Black Seminole units against United States troops during the Seminole Wars
in Florida
. He led a number of Black Seminoles to Indian Territory
(now Oklahoma
) during Indian Removal
. When they faced continuing threats from slave raiders there, he led a group to Mexico, where they achieved freedom in 1850, years before the American Civil War
and . After the American Civil War
, Horse and some of his followers were recruited by the United States Army
to serve as scouts in the West
. They and their families settled near
, former Spanish Florida
. John Horse assumed the surname of his owner, Charles Cavallo (who may also have been his father). "Horse" is the meaning of Cavallo. His mother may have been of mixed African-Indian parentage, and was possibly owned by Charles Cavallo, who was possibly of Indian-Spanish parentage. They also had a daughter, Juana (spelled "Wannah" or "Warner" in some sources). Not much is known about Charles Cavallo. He did not appear to treat his two mixed-race children as slaves.
The year Juan Caballo was born, the War of 1812
broke out between the United States and the Great Britain. Horse was probably living with his mother in one of the black towns under the jurisdiction of the Alachua band of Oconee
along the Suwanee River. When General Andrew Jackson
invaded the area, he scattered the tribal peoples and their black allies/dependents.
The Seminole lived in a subsistence economy, in which they had enslaved people work along with them. They relied on small-scale farming, as well as hunting by men, and gathering of fruits, nuts and vegetables by women. Though nominally a slave while among the Seminole in Florida, Horse, like Black Seminole who lived independently, could come and go as he pleased, bear arms and fight alongside the Seminole. At the time, the Seminole treated their slaves more as vassals in a feudal tribal society.
at the end of December 1837, against the army of General Zachary Taylor
. The war dragged on until 1842.
In the spring of 1838, Horse surrendered to US troops. This may have been after the death of his first wife, a Seminole woman said to have been a daughter of Chief Holatoochee (a brother or nephew of Micanopy). With other Seminole, Horse was shipped from Tampa Bay
to New Orleans and then to Indian Territory. There he settled with other Seminole and Black Seminole who had accepted removal
. Once there, Horse rose as a leader of the Black Seminole.
Caballo was first given his freedom by General Worth for his service to the U.S. in the latter days of the Second Seminole War in Florida. He had taken advantage of General Thomas Sydney Jesup's promise of freedom to escaped slaves who would surrender and accept removal to Indian Territory
west of the Mississippi. Caballo's wife and children, who also were removed to Indian Territory, did not gain freedom by his service. This put his family at risk from slave traders. .
In Indian Territory, the exiled Seminole leadership voted freedom for John Horse around 1843 for his services to them during the war. At the time, Chief Micanopy (Mico Nuppa) had nominal ownership over Horse.<-??-> He led the way in officially granting the warrior his freedom.
Conflict arose as the Creek people
, a number of whom already owned slaves and were acquiring more, were already settled in the lands which the Army had promised to the Seminole. This led to tensions, as the Creek tried to kidnap several Black Seminole for enslavement. They succeeded in capturing Dembo Factor, a veteran of the Seminole War. Coacoochee, a Seminole traditionalist who opposed living with the Creek, protested against selling Factor as a slave. He was joined by Horse. The Army recovered Factor and returned him to the Seminole, but neither they nor the Creek filed charges against the suspected slavers.
Coacoochee and Horse traveled to Washington, D.C.
in 1844 to seek a separate land grant for the Seminole. After failing to secure a treaty, they returned to Indian Territory. Horse traveled again to Washington and lobbied General Jesup, for separate land for Seminole settlement. Jesup granted the Fort Gibson
area as a place of residence to the Seminole. During Horse's time in Washington, then-Attorney-General John Y. Mason
ruled that as most of the Black Seminole were descendants of fugitive slaves and thus legally still considered born into slavery, he could not protect them against slave raiders. This meant that over 280 Black Seminoles, including members of Horse's family, were at risk of being captured for sale as chattel slaves.
to Wewoka
, further from the Creek. During this time, Coacoochee and Horse thought of constructing an alliance of Plains Indians, eastern Indians and fugitive slaves in an uprising against the federal government.
The two waited until the ill-liked Indian agent, Marcellus Duval, finished his tenure and returned to Washington. They quickly led a migration of mostly Black Seminole across Texas and the Rio Grande
into Coahuila
, Mexico, as that nation had abolished slavery decades earlier. They presented themselves to the Mexican commander at Piedras Negras
on July 12, 1850.
of slaves in the US, Horse returned to Texas with a number of Black Seminole, who had been recruited in 1870 by the US Cavalry to work as scouts. The scouts and their families settled near the fort in Texas, in what is now Brackettville
.
After a number of years, Horse returned to Mexico. He died en route to Mexico City
, intending to try to gain more land rights for his people in northern Mexico. Descendants of Black Seminoles still reside in Coahuila.
Osceola
Osceola, also known as Billy Powell , became an influential leader with the Seminole in Florida. He was of Creek, Scots-Irish and English parentage, and had migrated to Florida with his mother after the defeat of the Creek in 1814.Osceola led a small band of warriors in the Seminole resistance...
and a leader of Black Seminole units against United States troops during the Seminole Wars
Seminole Wars
The Seminole Wars, also known as the Florida Wars, were three conflicts in Florida between the Seminole — the collective name given to the amalgamation of various groups of native Americans and Black people who settled in Florida in the early 18th century — and the United States Army...
in Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
. He led a number of Black Seminoles to Indian Territory
Indian Territory
The Indian Territory, also known as the Indian Territories and the Indian Country, was land set aside within the United States for the settlement of American Indians...
(now Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. With an estimated 3,751,351 residents as of the 2010 census and a land area of 68,667 square miles , Oklahoma is the 28th most populous and 20th-largest state...
) during Indian Removal
Indian Removal
Indian removal was a nineteenth century policy of the government of the United States to relocate Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to lands west of the river...
. When they faced continuing threats from slave raiders there, he led a group to Mexico, where they achieved freedom in 1850, years before the American Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
and . After the American Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
, Horse and some of his followers were recruited by the United States Army
United States Army
The United States Army is the main branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military, and is one of seven U.S. uniformed services...
to serve as scouts in the West
The Old West
The Old West is a series of books about the fundamental founding of the American Old West, published by Time-Life Books from 1973 through 1980. Each book focused on a different topic, such as cowboys, American indians, gamblers and gunfighters....
. They and their families settled near
Early life and education
John Horse, called Juan Caballo as a child, may have been born and raised as a slave in MicanopyMicanopy, Florida
Micanopy is a town in Alachua County, Florida, United States. It is south of Gainesville. The population in the 2000 census was 653. As of 2004, the population according to the U.S. Census Bureau was 652...
, former Spanish Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
. John Horse assumed the surname of his owner, Charles Cavallo (who may also have been his father). "Horse" is the meaning of Cavallo. His mother may have been of mixed African-Indian parentage, and was possibly owned by Charles Cavallo, who was possibly of Indian-Spanish parentage. They also had a daughter, Juana (spelled "Wannah" or "Warner" in some sources). Not much is known about Charles Cavallo. He did not appear to treat his two mixed-race children as slaves.
The year Juan Caballo was born, the War of 1812
War of 1812
The War of 1812 was a military conflict fought between the forces of the United States of America and those of the British Empire. The Americans declared war in 1812 for several reasons, including trade restrictions because of Britain's ongoing war with France, impressment of American merchant...
broke out between the United States and the Great Britain. Horse was probably living with his mother in one of the black towns under the jurisdiction of the Alachua band of Oconee
Oconee
Oconee may refer to:* the Oconee tribe, Hitchiti speakers that became part of the Seminole and Creek nations* the Oconee War* the Oconee Nuclear Generating Station in South CarolinaOconi was the name of a branch of the Timucua tribe in Florida....
along the Suwanee River. When General Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson was the seventh President of the United States . Based in frontier Tennessee, Jackson was a politician and army general who defeated the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend , and the British at the Battle of New Orleans...
invaded the area, he scattered the tribal peoples and their black allies/dependents.
The Seminole lived in a subsistence economy, in which they had enslaved people work along with them. They relied on small-scale farming, as well as hunting by men, and gathering of fruits, nuts and vegetables by women. Though nominally a slave while among the Seminole in Florida, Horse, like Black Seminole who lived independently, could come and go as he pleased, bear arms and fight alongside the Seminole. At the time, the Seminole treated their slaves more as vassals in a feudal tribal society.
Seminole Wars
The First Seminole War (1817–1818) occurred during Horse's childhood. Gene the Second Seminole WarSecond Seminole War
The Second Seminole War, also known as the Florida War, was a conflict from 1835 to 1842 in Florida between various groups of Native Americans collectively known as Seminoles and the United States, part of a series of conflicts called the Seminole Wars...
at the end of December 1837, against the army of General Zachary Taylor
Zachary Taylor
Zachary Taylor was the 12th President of the United States and an American military leader. Initially uninterested in politics, Taylor nonetheless ran as a Whig in the 1848 presidential election, defeating Lewis Cass...
. The war dragged on until 1842.
In the spring of 1838, Horse surrendered to US troops. This may have been after the death of his first wife, a Seminole woman said to have been a daughter of Chief Holatoochee (a brother or nephew of Micanopy). With other Seminole, Horse was shipped from Tampa Bay
Tampa Bay
Tampa Bay is a large natural harbor and estuary along the Gulf of Mexico on the west central coast of Florida, comprising Hillsborough Bay, Old Tampa Bay, Middle Tampa Bay, and Lower Tampa Bay."Tampa Bay" is not the name of any municipality...
to New Orleans and then to Indian Territory. There he settled with other Seminole and Black Seminole who had accepted removal
Indian Removal
Indian removal was a nineteenth century policy of the government of the United States to relocate Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to lands west of the river...
. Once there, Horse rose as a leader of the Black Seminole.
Life in Indian Territory
After settling in Indian Territory, Horse accepted a job as an interpreter for the US Army. They asked him to help persuade remaining insurrectionists in Florida to surrender and relocate to Indian Territory. Horse returned to Florida in 1839. He returned to Indian Territory in 1842 along with some 120 Seminole who had been captured and deported.Caballo was first given his freedom by General Worth for his service to the U.S. in the latter days of the Second Seminole War in Florida. He had taken advantage of General Thomas Sydney Jesup's promise of freedom to escaped slaves who would surrender and accept removal to Indian Territory
Indian Territory
The Indian Territory, also known as the Indian Territories and the Indian Country, was land set aside within the United States for the settlement of American Indians...
west of the Mississippi. Caballo's wife and children, who also were removed to Indian Territory, did not gain freedom by his service. This put his family at risk from slave traders. .
In Indian Territory, the exiled Seminole leadership voted freedom for John Horse around 1843 for his services to them during the war. At the time, Chief Micanopy (Mico Nuppa) had nominal ownership over Horse.<-??-> He led the way in officially granting the warrior his freedom.
Conflict arose as the Creek people
Creek people
The Muscogee , also known as the Creek or Creeks, are a Native American people traditionally from the southeastern United States. Mvskoke is their name in traditional spelling. The modern Muscogee live primarily in Oklahoma, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida...
, a number of whom already owned slaves and were acquiring more, were already settled in the lands which the Army had promised to the Seminole. This led to tensions, as the Creek tried to kidnap several Black Seminole for enslavement. They succeeded in capturing Dembo Factor, a veteran of the Seminole War. Coacoochee, a Seminole traditionalist who opposed living with the Creek, protested against selling Factor as a slave. He was joined by Horse. The Army recovered Factor and returned him to the Seminole, but neither they nor the Creek filed charges against the suspected slavers.
Coacoochee and Horse traveled to Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, "the District", or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States. On July 16, 1790, the United States Congress approved the creation of a permanent national capital as permitted by the U.S. Constitution....
in 1844 to seek a separate land grant for the Seminole. After failing to secure a treaty, they returned to Indian Territory. Horse traveled again to Washington and lobbied General Jesup, for separate land for Seminole settlement. Jesup granted the Fort Gibson
Fort Gibson
Fort Gibson, now located in Oklahoma and designated Fort Gibson Historical Site, guarded the American frontier in Indian Territory from 1824 until 1890...
area as a place of residence to the Seminole. During Horse's time in Washington, then-Attorney-General John Y. Mason
John Y. Mason
John Young Mason was an American politician, diplomat, and United States federal judge.-Early life, education, and career:...
ruled that as most of the Black Seminole were descendants of fugitive slaves and thus legally still considered born into slavery, he could not protect them against slave raiders. This meant that over 280 Black Seminoles, including members of Horse's family, were at risk of being captured for sale as chattel slaves.
Migration
Returning to the territory, John Horse and Coacoochee led a group of Seminole and Black Seminole from Fort GibsonFort Gibson
Fort Gibson, now located in Oklahoma and designated Fort Gibson Historical Site, guarded the American frontier in Indian Territory from 1824 until 1890...
to Wewoka
Wewoka, Oklahoma
Wewoka is a city in Seminole County, Oklahoma, United States. The population was 3,562 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Seminole County.Wewoka is the capital of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma.-Geography:Wewoka is located at ....
, further from the Creek. During this time, Coacoochee and Horse thought of constructing an alliance of Plains Indians, eastern Indians and fugitive slaves in an uprising against the federal government.
The two waited until the ill-liked Indian agent, Marcellus Duval, finished his tenure and returned to Washington. They quickly led a migration of mostly Black Seminole across Texas and the Rio Grande
Rio Grande
The Rio Grande is a river that flows from southwestern Colorado in the United States to the Gulf of Mexico. Along the way it forms part of the Mexico – United States border. Its length varies as its course changes...
into Coahuila
Coahuila
Coahuila, formally Coahuila de Zaragoza , officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Coahuila de Zaragoza is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico...
, Mexico, as that nation had abolished slavery decades earlier. They presented themselves to the Mexican commander at Piedras Negras
Piedras Negras, Coahuila
-Natural Resources:This region generates a large amount of the national production of coal, one of the most economically important non-metallic minerals in the state.-Tourism:Piedras Negras' main tourist attractions are:...
on July 12, 1850.
Later life
Horse secured land for the migrants in Mexico. Many of the veterans served Mexico as border guards. After the Civil War and emancipationEmancipation
Emancipation means the act of setting an individual or social group free or making equal to citizens in a political society.Emancipation may also refer to:* Emancipation , a champion Australian thoroughbred racehorse foaled in 1979...
of slaves in the US, Horse returned to Texas with a number of Black Seminole, who had been recruited in 1870 by the US Cavalry to work as scouts. The scouts and their families settled near the fort in Texas, in what is now Brackettville
Brackettville, Texas
Brackettville is a city in Kinney County, Texas, United States. The population was 1,876 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Kinney County...
.
After a number of years, Horse returned to Mexico. He died en route to Mexico City
Mexico City
Mexico City is the Federal District , capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole...
, intending to try to gain more land rights for his people in northern Mexico. Descendants of Black Seminoles still reside in Coahuila.
Additional reading
- Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr., Africans and Seminoles: From Removal to Emancipation (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2001)
External links
- John Horse website
- "Horse, John", Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture
- "John Horse", BlackPast.org