Jean Pierre Boyer
Encyclopedia
Jean-Pierre Boyer a native of Saint-Domingue
, was a soldier, one of the leaders of the Haitian Revolution
, and President of Haiti from 1818 to 1843. He reunited the north and south of Haiti in 1820 and also invaded and took control of Santo Domingo, which brought all of Hispaniola under one government by 1822. Boyer managed to rule for the longest period of time of any of the revolutionary leaders of his generation.
Born a free gens de couleur (or mulatto
) in St. Domingue (modern day Haiti) and educated in France
, Boyer fought with Toussaint Louverture in the early years of the Haitian Revolution. He allied himself with André Rigaud
, also a mulatto
, in the latter's abortive insurrection against Toussaint to keep control in the south of Saint-Domingue.
After going into exile in France, Boyer and Alexandre Pétion
, another mulatto, returned in 1802 with the French troops led by General Charles Leclerc
. After it became clear the French were going to try to reimpose slavery and restrictions on free gens de couleur
, Boyer joined the patriots under Alexandre Pétion
and Jean-Jacques Dessalines
who led the colony to independence. After Pétion rose to power in the State of Haiti in the South, he chose Boyer as his successor.
When Santo Domingo
became independent late in 1821, Boyer was quick to invade and gain control, uniting the entire island under his rule by February 9, 1822. Boyer ruled the island of Hispaniola
until 1843, when he lost the support of the ruling elite and was ousted.
. His father sent Boyer to France and paid for his education at a military school. Boyer joined the French Republican Army and earned the rank of battalion commander.
After the uprising of slaves in the north of Saint-Domingue, Boyer joined with the French Commissioners and went there to fight against the grand blancs (plantation owners) and royalists. In 1794, Saint-Domingue was invaded by English forces trying to capitalize on the unrest in the formerly wealthy colony. Boyer went to Jacmel, where he joined forces with the mulatto leader, General Rigaud. When other mulatto leaders surrendered to Toussaint Louverture in southern Saint-Domingue, Boyer, Rigaud, and Petion went to France.
On his way to France, Boyer stopped in the United States for his first and last time. He only visited the United States that one time but “he always remembered it vividly.”
Shortly after this the Franco-American crisis ended, Boyer traveled to Paris, where he stayed until 1801. Next, he returned to Haiti to protest the independence that Toussaint L'Ouverture had just achieved. During this time it was uncovered that the French were planning on taking away the civil rights of mulattoes and reinstituting slavery for former slaves in Saint Domingue (as they managed to do in Guadeloupe.) Boyer collaborated with other native leaders to defeat the French.
Dessalines declared Haitian independence on January 1, 1804. He established himself as Emperor
Jacques I. He was assassinated by opponents in 1806.
Alexandre Pétion and Henri Christophe
competed to rule the nation. After years of warfare, they each established separate states: Pétion established the State of Haiti in the southern part of Haiti, and Christophe created what became the Kingdom of Haiti in the north. Boyer worked closely with Pétion to create a Republican Constitution similar to that of the United States. President Pétion taught Boyer what to do, and what not to do. Pétion succeeded in winning the hearts of his people and grew to be the most liked of any leader. In 1816, Pétion succeeded in amending the constitution to allow him to name his own successor. Before dying in 1818, Pétion anointed Boyer, and the Senate immediately approved his choice.
Boyer believed Haiti had to be acknowledged as an independent nation, and that this could be established only by cutting a deal with France. On July 11, 1825 Boyer signed an indemnity saying Haiti would pay France a certain amount of money (to compensate for the lost property in slaves and trade) in exchange for formal recognition of its independence.
Haiti’s motto is “in unity there is strength”. As soon as Boyer came to power, he was confronted with the continuing competition with Henri Christophe and the Kingdom of Haiti in the north. Christophe's autocratic rule created continued unrest in the Kingdom of Haiti. His soldiers rebelled against him in 1820. In failing health and fearing assassination
, Christophe committed suicide
. Boyer reunited Haiti without a single battle.
.
Some politicians and military officers in Santo Domingo favored unification with the Republic of Haiti. Former slaves sought to secure emancipation under Haitian President Jean-Pierre Boyer. Another faction based in Dajabon, near the border, opposed union with Gran Colombia
and supported Boyer.
Boyer sought to protect his country from the danger of France or Spain's retaking Santo Domingo and attacking or re-conquering Haiti. He wanted to maintain Haitian independence and secure the freedom of the slaves in Santo Domingo .
After promising protection to several Dominican frontier governors and securing their allegiance, Boyer invaded the Dominican Republic
with a force of 50,000 soldiers in February 1822. These forces encountered little resistance from the considerable smaller dominican population. On February 9, 1822, Boyer formally entered the capital city, Santo Domingo, where Núñez de Cáceres had to over the keys to the city. Dominicans reacted uneasily to the Haitian invasion.
The island of Hispaniola was now united under one government from Cape Tiburon to Cape Samana. By awarding land to Haitian military officers at the expense of former members of the Spanish forces of Santo Domingo, Boyer reduced his influence with the Spanish-Haitian leadership. He continued the policy of Alexandre Pétion
, his former political mentor, of helping free people of color in other Spanish Latin American colonies resist the Spanish crown. Boyer ignored Haitian political opponents who called for reforms, such as parliamentary democracy, and veteran generals of the War of Independence, who believed that the revolution was not complete and that they were being neglected.
Boyer had to negotiate a loan from France of 30 million francs to pay the first part of the indemnity. Most of the largely rural Haitian population meanwhile was retreating into an agricultural subsistence pattern, defying Boyer's attempt to enforce the semi-feudal fermage system.
The people of Haiti were distressed at their situation. Boyer resurrected a land distribution program. He broke up some of the large plantations and distributed land to the small farmers. To try to produce enough products for export to generate revenue, the government "tied" the rural population to their smallholdings and established production quotas.
Boyer's rule lasted until 1843, when the poor economic situation was worsened by an earthquake
. The disadvantaged rural population rose up under Charles Rivière-Hérard
in late January. On February 13, Boyer fled Haiti to nearby Jamaica
before settling in exile
in France, where he died in Paris
. Descendants of Boyer still live in Haiti.
The American Colonization Society
(ACS) noticed the recruitment effort. Concerned that free blacks could never assimilate to the United States, its members supported "repatriating" American blacks to Africa, regardless of where they had been born. The ACS was organizing a colonial movement to Liberia
for former slaves. The organization tried to persuade free blacks to leave the US voluntarily. In 1817 Loring D. Dewey
toured the East Coast
, starting in New York, to recruit emigrants. The organization hoped to resettle 100,000 free people of color within 10 years .
His meetings with people in New York convinced Dewey to abandon the idea of colonizing Liberia. Haitian citizens there told him that Haiti was the ideal Black homeland, due to its moderate weather conditions and independent Negro government. After Dewey wrote to Boyer to determine if he was still interested in receiving American immigrants, Boyer proposed that Haiti would seek Blacks from America exclusively.
The A.C.S. sent Boyer questions related to its goal of a colony for American freedmen. Boyer was confident that his government would be able to receive these people. The A.C.S. tried to negotiate to have the Haitian government pay transportation costs for the immigrants. Boyer responded that the government would pay for those who could not afford it, but the American Colonization Society would have to take care of the rest of the finances. Haiti was already in debt to the French, which had exacted payment for lost properties, in essence making Haiti pay for its independence. The government did not have funds to transport American families to Haiti.
Dewey proposed establishing a colony for American freedmen that would be separate from the rest of the island, with its own laws, legislature, etc. Boyer was opposed the idea of an American colony on the island, since the Haitians already feared re-colonization by the French. He told Dewey that the laws of the Haitian government applied to everyone across Haiti.
Beginning in September 1824, within a year nearly 6,000 Americans, mostly free people of color, migrated to Haiti, with ships departing from New York, Baltimore
and Philadelphia. Due to the poverty of the island and the inability of Boyer's administration to help the new immigrants in the transition, most returned to the U.S.
. Then he was exiled to France. He died there in 1850.
Saint-Domingue
The labour for these plantations was provided by an estimated 790,000 African slaves . Between 1764 and 1771, the average annual importation of slaves varied between 10,000-15,000; by 1786 it was about 28,000, and from 1787 onward, the colony received more than 40,000 slaves a year...
, was a soldier, one of the leaders of the Haitian Revolution
Haitian Revolution
The Haitian Revolution was a period of conflict in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which culminated in the elimination of slavery there and the founding of the Haitian republic...
, and President of Haiti from 1818 to 1843. He reunited the north and south of Haiti in 1820 and also invaded and took control of Santo Domingo, which brought all of Hispaniola under one government by 1822. Boyer managed to rule for the longest period of time of any of the revolutionary leaders of his generation.
Born a free gens de couleur (or mulatto
Mulatto
Mulatto denotes a person with one white parent and one black parent, or more broadly, a person of mixed black and white ancestry. Contemporary usage of the term varies greatly, and the broader sense of the term makes its application rather subjective, as not all people of mixed white and black...
) in St. Domingue (modern day Haiti) and educated in France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, Boyer fought with Toussaint Louverture in the early years of the Haitian Revolution. He allied himself with André Rigaud
André Rigaud
Benoit Joseph André Rigaud was the leading mulatto military leader during the Haïtian Revolution. Among his protégés were Alexandre Pétion and Jean-Pierre Boyer, both future presidents of Haïti.-The revolutionary:...
, also a mulatto
Mulatto
Mulatto denotes a person with one white parent and one black parent, or more broadly, a person of mixed black and white ancestry. Contemporary usage of the term varies greatly, and the broader sense of the term makes its application rather subjective, as not all people of mixed white and black...
, in the latter's abortive insurrection against Toussaint to keep control in the south of Saint-Domingue.
After going into exile in France, Boyer and Alexandre Pétion
Alexandre Pétion
Alexandre Sabès Pétion was President of the Republic of Haiti from 1806 until his death. He is considered as one of Haiti's founding fathers, together with Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, and his rival Henri Christophe.-Early life:Pétion was born in Port-au-Prince to a Haitian...
, another mulatto, returned in 1802 with the French troops led by General Charles Leclerc
Charles Leclerc
Charles Victoire Emmanuel Leclerc was a French Army general and husband to Pauline Bonaparte, sister to Napoleon Bonaparte.-To 1801:...
. After it became clear the French were going to try to reimpose slavery and restrictions on free gens de couleur
Gens de couleur
Gens de couleur is a French term meaning "people of color." The term was commonly used in France's West Indian colonies prior to the abolition of slavery, where it was a short form of gens de couleur libres ....
, Boyer joined the patriots under Alexandre Pétion
Alexandre Pétion
Alexandre Sabès Pétion was President of the Republic of Haiti from 1806 until his death. He is considered as one of Haiti's founding fathers, together with Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, and his rival Henri Christophe.-Early life:Pétion was born in Port-au-Prince to a Haitian...
and Jean-Jacques Dessalines
Jean-Jacques Dessalines
Jean-Jacques Dessalines was a leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of an independent Haiti under the 1801 constitution. Initially regarded as Governor-General, Dessalines later named himself Emperor Jacques I of Haiti...
who led the colony to independence. After Pétion rose to power in the State of Haiti in the South, he chose Boyer as his successor.
When Santo Domingo
Santo Domingo
Santo Domingo, known officially as Santo Domingo de Guzmán, is the capital and largest city in the Dominican Republic. Its metropolitan population was 2,084,852 in 2003, and estimated at 3,294,385 in 2010. The city is located on the Caribbean Sea, at the mouth of the Ozama River...
became independent late in 1821, Boyer was quick to invade and gain control, uniting the entire island under his rule by February 9, 1822. Boyer ruled the island of Hispaniola
Hispaniola
Hispaniola is a major island in the Caribbean, containing the two sovereign states of the Dominican Republic and Haiti. The island is located between the islands of Cuba to the west and Puerto Rico to the east, within the hurricane belt...
until 1843, when he lost the support of the ruling elite and was ousted.
History
Boyer was the son of a Frenchman, a tailor by profession, and an African mother, a former slave from GuineaGuinea
Guinea , officially the Republic of Guinea , is a country in West Africa. Formerly known as French Guinea , it is today sometimes called Guinea-Conakry to distinguish it from its neighbour Guinea-Bissau. Guinea is divided into eight administrative regions and subdivided into thirty-three prefectures...
. His father sent Boyer to France and paid for his education at a military school. Boyer joined the French Republican Army and earned the rank of battalion commander.
After the uprising of slaves in the north of Saint-Domingue, Boyer joined with the French Commissioners and went there to fight against the grand blancs (plantation owners) and royalists. In 1794, Saint-Domingue was invaded by English forces trying to capitalize on the unrest in the formerly wealthy colony. Boyer went to Jacmel, where he joined forces with the mulatto leader, General Rigaud. When other mulatto leaders surrendered to Toussaint Louverture in southern Saint-Domingue, Boyer, Rigaud, and Petion went to France.
On his way to France, Boyer stopped in the United States for his first and last time. He only visited the United States that one time but “he always remembered it vividly.”
Shortly after this the Franco-American crisis ended, Boyer traveled to Paris, where he stayed until 1801. Next, he returned to Haiti to protest the independence that Toussaint L'Ouverture had just achieved. During this time it was uncovered that the French were planning on taking away the civil rights of mulattoes and reinstituting slavery for former slaves in Saint Domingue (as they managed to do in Guadeloupe.) Boyer collaborated with other native leaders to defeat the French.
Dessalines declared Haitian independence on January 1, 1804. He established himself as Emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
Jacques I. He was assassinated by opponents in 1806.
Alexandre Pétion and Henri Christophe
Henri Christophe
Henri Christophe was a key leader in the Haitian Revolution, winning independence from France in 1804. On 17 February 1807, after the creation of a separate nation in the north, Christophe was elected President of the State of Haiti...
competed to rule the nation. After years of warfare, they each established separate states: Pétion established the State of Haiti in the southern part of Haiti, and Christophe created what became the Kingdom of Haiti in the north. Boyer worked closely with Pétion to create a Republican Constitution similar to that of the United States. President Pétion taught Boyer what to do, and what not to do. Pétion succeeded in winning the hearts of his people and grew to be the most liked of any leader. In 1816, Pétion succeeded in amending the constitution to allow him to name his own successor. Before dying in 1818, Pétion anointed Boyer, and the Senate immediately approved his choice.
Boyer believed Haiti had to be acknowledged as an independent nation, and that this could be established only by cutting a deal with France. On July 11, 1825 Boyer signed an indemnity saying Haiti would pay France a certain amount of money (to compensate for the lost property in slaves and trade) in exchange for formal recognition of its independence.
Haiti’s motto is “in unity there is strength”. As soon as Boyer came to power, he was confronted with the continuing competition with Henri Christophe and the Kingdom of Haiti in the north. Christophe's autocratic rule created continued unrest in the Kingdom of Haiti. His soldiers rebelled against him in 1820. In failing health and fearing assassination
Assassination
To carry out an assassination is "to murder by a sudden and/or secret attack, often for political reasons." Alternatively, assassination may be defined as "the act of deliberately killing someone, especially a public figure, usually for hire or for political reasons."An assassination may be...
, Christophe committed suicide
Suicide
Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Suicide is often committed out of despair or attributed to some underlying mental disorder, such as depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, alcoholism, or drug abuse...
. Boyer reunited Haiti without a single battle.
Unification of Haiti and Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic)
On November 30, 1821, several frontier towns near the border with Santo Domingo raised the Haitian flag as a show of independence. The new nation was known as Haiti. On December 1, 1821, the leaders of the new nation resolved to unite Santo Domingo with Gran ColombiaGran Colombia
Gran Colombia is a name used today for the state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to 1831. This short-lived republic included the territories of present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, northern Peru and northwest Brazil. The...
.
Some politicians and military officers in Santo Domingo favored unification with the Republic of Haiti. Former slaves sought to secure emancipation under Haitian President Jean-Pierre Boyer. Another faction based in Dajabon, near the border, opposed union with Gran Colombia
Gran Colombia
Gran Colombia is a name used today for the state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to 1831. This short-lived republic included the territories of present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, northern Peru and northwest Brazil. The...
and supported Boyer.
Boyer sought to protect his country from the danger of France or Spain's retaking Santo Domingo and attacking or re-conquering Haiti. He wanted to maintain Haitian independence and secure the freedom of the slaves in Santo Domingo .
After promising protection to several Dominican frontier governors and securing their allegiance, Boyer invaded the Dominican Republic
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic is a nation on the island of La Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are shared by two countries...
with a force of 50,000 soldiers in February 1822. These forces encountered little resistance from the considerable smaller dominican population. On February 9, 1822, Boyer formally entered the capital city, Santo Domingo, where Núñez de Cáceres had to over the keys to the city. Dominicans reacted uneasily to the Haitian invasion.
The island of Hispaniola was now united under one government from Cape Tiburon to Cape Samana. By awarding land to Haitian military officers at the expense of former members of the Spanish forces of Santo Domingo, Boyer reduced his influence with the Spanish-Haitian leadership. He continued the policy of Alexandre Pétion
Alexandre Pétion
Alexandre Sabès Pétion was President of the Republic of Haiti from 1806 until his death. He is considered as one of Haiti's founding fathers, together with Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, and his rival Henri Christophe.-Early life:Pétion was born in Port-au-Prince to a Haitian...
, his former political mentor, of helping free people of color in other Spanish Latin American colonies resist the Spanish crown. Boyer ignored Haitian political opponents who called for reforms, such as parliamentary democracy, and veteran generals of the War of Independence, who believed that the revolution was not complete and that they were being neglected.
Payment of indemnity to France
Boyer was anxious to remove the threat of France and opened negotiations. An agreement was reached on July 11, 1825, when (with fourteen French warships off Port-au-Prince) Boyer signed an indemnity stating that in return for 150 million francs paid within five years, France would recognize Haiti as an independent country. While this sum was later reduced to 90 million francs (1838), it was a crushing economic blow to Haiti.Boyer had to negotiate a loan from France of 30 million francs to pay the first part of the indemnity. Most of the largely rural Haitian population meanwhile was retreating into an agricultural subsistence pattern, defying Boyer's attempt to enforce the semi-feudal fermage system.
The people of Haiti were distressed at their situation. Boyer resurrected a land distribution program. He broke up some of the large plantations and distributed land to the small farmers. To try to produce enough products for export to generate revenue, the government "tied" the rural population to their smallholdings and established production quotas.
Boyer's rule lasted until 1843, when the poor economic situation was worsened by an earthquake
Earthquake
An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. The seismicity, seismism or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time...
. The disadvantaged rural population rose up under Charles Rivière-Hérard
Charles Riviere-Hérard
Charles Rivière-Hérard also known as Charles Hérard Aîné was an officer in the Haitian Army under Andre Petion during his struggles against Henri Christophe. He was declared President of Haiti on 4 April 1843. He was forced from office by revolutionaries on 3 May 1844.Charles Hérard Aîné was born...
in late January. On February 13, Boyer fled Haiti to nearby Jamaica
Jamaica
Jamaica is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length, up to in width and 10,990 square kilometres in area. It is situated in the Caribbean Sea, about south of Cuba, and west of Hispaniola, the island harbouring the nation-states Haiti and the Dominican Republic...
before settling in exile
Exile
Exile means to be away from one's home , while either being explicitly refused permission to return and/or being threatened with imprisonment or death upon return...
in France, where he died in Paris
Paris
Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
. Descendants of Boyer still live in Haiti.
Welcoming freed black Americans
Boyer encouraged freed American blacks to emigrate to the Republic of Haiti. His government advertised the opportunities in newspapers: “promising free land and political opportunity to black settlers." Boyer sent agents to black communities to convince them that Haiti was a sovereign state, and open to immigration only for blacks.The American Colonization Society
American Colonization Society
The American Colonization Society , founded in 1816, was the primary vehicle to support the "return" of free African Americans to what was considered greater freedom in Africa. It helped to found the colony of Liberia in 1821–22 as a place for freedmen...
(ACS) noticed the recruitment effort. Concerned that free blacks could never assimilate to the United States, its members supported "repatriating" American blacks to Africa, regardless of where they had been born. The ACS was organizing a colonial movement to Liberia
Liberia
Liberia , officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Sierra Leone on the west, Guinea on the north and Côte d'Ivoire on the east. Liberia's coastline is composed of mostly mangrove forests while the more sparsely populated inland consists of forests that open...
for former slaves. The organization tried to persuade free blacks to leave the US voluntarily. In 1817 Loring D. Dewey
Loring D. Dewey
Loring Daniel Dewey was an early 19th century Presbyterian minister, an agent of the American Colonization Society, an emigrationist, a printer, and a reformer....
toured the East Coast
East Coast of the United States
The East Coast of the United States, also known as the Eastern Seaboard, refers to the easternmost coastal states in the United States, which touch the Atlantic Ocean and stretch up to Canada. The term includes the U.S...
, starting in New York, to recruit emigrants. The organization hoped to resettle 100,000 free people of color within 10 years .
His meetings with people in New York convinced Dewey to abandon the idea of colonizing Liberia. Haitian citizens there told him that Haiti was the ideal Black homeland, due to its moderate weather conditions and independent Negro government. After Dewey wrote to Boyer to determine if he was still interested in receiving American immigrants, Boyer proposed that Haiti would seek Blacks from America exclusively.
The A.C.S. sent Boyer questions related to its goal of a colony for American freedmen. Boyer was confident that his government would be able to receive these people. The A.C.S. tried to negotiate to have the Haitian government pay transportation costs for the immigrants. Boyer responded that the government would pay for those who could not afford it, but the American Colonization Society would have to take care of the rest of the finances. Haiti was already in debt to the French, which had exacted payment for lost properties, in essence making Haiti pay for its independence. The government did not have funds to transport American families to Haiti.
Dewey proposed establishing a colony for American freedmen that would be separate from the rest of the island, with its own laws, legislature, etc. Boyer was opposed the idea of an American colony on the island, since the Haitians already feared re-colonization by the French. He told Dewey that the laws of the Haitian government applied to everyone across Haiti.
Beginning in September 1824, within a year nearly 6,000 Americans, mostly free people of color, migrated to Haiti, with ships departing from New York, Baltimore
Baltimore
Baltimore is the largest independent city in the United States and the largest city and cultural center of the US state of Maryland. The city is located in central Maryland along the tidal portion of the Patapsco River, an arm of the Chesapeake Bay. Baltimore is sometimes referred to as Baltimore...
and Philadelphia. Due to the poverty of the island and the inability of Boyer's administration to help the new immigrants in the transition, most returned to the U.S.
Exile and death
After being overthrown, Boyer left Haiti on February 13, 1843 and went first to JamaicaJamaica
Jamaica is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length, up to in width and 10,990 square kilometres in area. It is situated in the Caribbean Sea, about south of Cuba, and west of Hispaniola, the island harbouring the nation-states Haiti and the Dominican Republic...
. Then he was exiled to France. He died there in 1850.