Ingroup
Encyclopedia
In sociology
and social psychology
, ingroups and outgroups are social groups
to which an individual feels as though he or she belongs as a member, or (for outgroups) to which they feel contempt, opposition, or a desire to compete. People tend to hold positive attitudes towards members of their own groups, a phenomenon known as ingroup bias
. The term originates from social identity theory which grew out of the work of social psychologists Henri Tajfel
and John Turner. Using a method
called the minimal group paradigm, Tajfel and colleagues discovered that people can form ingroups, as well as outgroup
s within a matter of minutes. Such groups can form even on the basis of seemingly trivial characteristics, such as preferences for certain paintings. Tajfel and colleagues' experiments also demonstrate that people are likely to privilege ingroup members (e.g. by awarding them more points or money), even when groups have been formed on trivial characteristics. Members of outgroups may be subject to outgroup homogeneity bias
es.
In evolutionary psychology
, ingroup favoritism is seen as an evolved mechanism selected for the advantages of coalition affiliation. Elements of favoritism are flexible in that they can be erased by social categorization manipulations. Other components appear less flexible, or even essential
- for instance this has been claimed for sex and ethnicity. A biological basis for these multiple systems for favoritism is indicated by behavior genetic research.
Most people belong to multiple social groups. Commonly encountered ingroup members include family
as well as people of the same race, culture
, gender
and religion
. Research demonstrates that people often privilege ingroup members over outgroup members even when the ingroup has no actual social standing.
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
and social psychology
Social psychology
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. By this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all...
, ingroups and outgroups are social groups
Group (sociology)
In the social sciences a social group can be defined as two or more humans who interact with one another, share similar characteristics and collectively have a sense of unity...
to which an individual feels as though he or she belongs as a member, or (for outgroups) to which they feel contempt, opposition, or a desire to compete. People tend to hold positive attitudes towards members of their own groups, a phenomenon known as ingroup bias
Ingroup bias
In-group–out-group bias, also called intergroup bias, refers to the phenomenon of in-group favoritism, a preference and affinity for one’s in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group. This can be expressed in evaluation of others, linking, allocation of resources and many...
. The term originates from social identity theory which grew out of the work of social psychologists Henri Tajfel
Henri Tajfel
Henri Tajfel was a British social psychologist, best known for his pioneering work on the cognitive aspects of prejudice and social identity theory, as well as being one of the founders of the European Association of Experimental Social Psychology.-Early life in Poland:Tajfel grew up in Poland...
and John Turner. Using a method
Method
Method may refer to:* Scientific method, a series of steps taken to acquire knowledge* Method , a piece of code associated with a class or object to perform a task...
called the minimal group paradigm, Tajfel and colleagues discovered that people can form ingroups, as well as outgroup
Outgroup
In cladistics or phylogenetics, an outgroup is a group of organisms that serves as a reference group for determination of the evolutionary relationship among three or more monophyletic groups of organisms....
s within a matter of minutes. Such groups can form even on the basis of seemingly trivial characteristics, such as preferences for certain paintings. Tajfel and colleagues' experiments also demonstrate that people are likely to privilege ingroup members (e.g. by awarding them more points or money), even when groups have been formed on trivial characteristics. Members of outgroups may be subject to outgroup homogeneity bias
Outgroup homogeneity bias
The outgroup homogeneity effect is one's perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members. I.e. "they are alike; we are diverse". The outgroup homogeneity effect, or "relative outgroup homogeniety" has been explicitly contrasted with the "outgroup...
es.
In evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology is an approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological traits such as memory, perception, and language from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, that is, the functional...
, ingroup favoritism is seen as an evolved mechanism selected for the advantages of coalition affiliation. Elements of favoritism are flexible in that they can be erased by social categorization manipulations. Other components appear less flexible, or even essential
Essentialism
In philosophy, essentialism is the view that, for any specific kind of entity, there is a set of characteristics or properties all of which any entity of that kind must possess. Therefore all things can be precisely defined or described...
- for instance this has been claimed for sex and ethnicity. A biological basis for these multiple systems for favoritism is indicated by behavior genetic research.
Most people belong to multiple social groups. Commonly encountered ingroup members include family
Family
In human context, a family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, or co-residence. In most societies it is the principal institution for the socialization of children...
as well as people of the same race, culture
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
, gender
Gender
Gender is a range of characteristics used to distinguish between males and females, particularly in the cases of men and women and the masculine and feminine attributes assigned to them. Depending on the context, the discriminating characteristics vary from sex to social role to gender identity...
and religion
Religion
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
. Research demonstrates that people often privilege ingroup members over outgroup members even when the ingroup has no actual social standing.
See also
- AuthoritarianismAuthoritarianismAuthoritarianism is a form of social organization characterized by submission to authority. It is usually opposed to individualism and democracy...
- CronyismCronyismCronyism is partiality to long-standing friends, especially by appointing them to positions of authority, regardless of their qualifications. Hence, cronyism is contrary in practice and principle to meritocracy....
- Collective narcissismCollective narcissismCollective narcissism is a type of narcissism where an individual has an inflated self-love of his or her own ingroup, where an “ingroup” is a group in which an individual is personally involved...
- ElitismElitismElitism is the belief or attitude that some individuals, who form an elite — a select group of people with intellect, wealth, specialized training or experience, or other distinctive attributes — are those whose views on a matter are to be taken the most seriously or carry the most...
- False consensus effectFalse consensus effectIn psychology, the false consensus effect is a cognitive bias whereby a person tends to overestimate how much other people agree with him or her. There is a tendency for people to assume that their own opinions, beliefs, preferences, values and habits are 'normal' and that others also think the...
- Ingroup bias
- NepotismNepotismNepotism is favoritism granted to relatives regardless of merit. The word nepotism is from the Latin word nepos, nepotis , from which modern Romanian nepot and Italian nipote, "nephew" or "grandchild" are also descended....
- Social dominance orientationSocial dominance orientationSocial dominance orientation is a personality trait which predicts social and political attitudes, and is a widely used Social Psychological scale. SDO is conceptualised as a measure of individual differences in levels of group-based discrimination and domination; that is, it is a measure of an...
- Social identity theory